Development and application of traditional organic lime consolidant using modern techniques for the restoration of marine degraded stones of Dwarkadhish temple, India

• A novel traditional-lime consolidant (TLC) was developed for the heritage stone restoration in marine settings. • 13 damage types were identified in heritage stones of Dwarka temple due to wind and salt exposure. • Extreme damage stones can be replaced by Okha Shell in the same geological settings of the temple. • TLC with plant extracts aided in faster precipitation of polymorphs of CaCO 3 . • Treated stone shows higher density (2.48–3.43 g/cm³) and 7.2% porosity reduction. This research investigates the deterioration of heritage shell limestones in the Dwarkadhish Temple, Gujarat, India, resulting from the harsh marine environment. Photogrammetric analysis revealed 13 types of damage, categorized as mild, moderate, and extreme with significant deterioration on the temple’s south façade, particularly on the second and third floors, caused by wind erosion, rainwater infiltration, and salt crystallization. Material characterization using density evaluation and Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry confirmed the limestone’s low density, with a total porosity of 17.75% and pore sizes ranging from 8 nm to 15,385 nm. To address extreme damages, Okha shell limestone—containing 72.9% binder (CaO and MgO)—was identified as a compatible replacement stone through X-ray diffraction and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy. For mild to moderate damages, a traditional lime consolidant (TLC) was formulated using a 5% w/v fermented extract blend of natural additives, including Terminalia chebula and jaggery, combined with herbal juice extracts from Aloe barbadensis Miller, Opuntia ficus-indica, Indigofera tinctoria , and Gymnema sylvestre . This mixture was optimized in a 2:5 ratio with lime and exhibited a slump value of 27.76 seconds, ensuring appropriate workability for pressure injection. Upon application, it absorbed atmospheric carbon dioxide, precipitating calcium carbonate polymorphs within the stone’s pores. This process increased the stone’s density from 2.48 to 3.43 g/cc and reduced total porosity by 7.2%, as further validated through microscopic imaging. As a sustainable green consolidant, the formulated TLC offers a reliable solution for restoring and preserving limestone structures affected by environmental deterioration in India’s built heritage.