A review on emerging carriers to improve bioaccessibility and bioavailability of astaxanthin

Astaxanthin (AST) has limited use because of its poor water solubility, degradation at harsh conditions, and low bioavailability. Encapsulation technology has the potential to overcome these challenges. This review outlines the recent progress on the emerging carriers for AST, including surface-coated emulsions, Pickering emulsions, nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, biopolymer-based nanoparticles, and nanomicelles. Particular emphasis is given to the improvement of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of AST after encapsulation. The associated factors including the increased solubility and stability in the gastrointestinal tract, the controllable release, and the small intestinal absorption are discussed in detail. The applications and limitations relative to the delivery efficiency of each carrier in the functional foods are also presented.