Factors influencing the performance of entomopathogenic nematodes: from laboratory to field conditions

Abstract Background Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) rank high among the best safe and effective biocontrol agents (BCAs). Recently developed techniques are priming EPNs for further expansion. The related methods try to challenge problems that relegate EPNs to niche markets. Main body This review focuses on the key biotic and abiotic factors that adversely affect EPN applications and biocontrol activities. Relevant information on such main factors as temperature, soil moisture, osmotic stress, hypoxia, ultraviolet radiation, desiccation, insect host defenses, bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, predators and parasitoids, and plant roots is highlighted. Manipulating these factors to improve EPN efficacy is addressed herein. Also, harnessing EPNs-adaptive responses to stresses are presented to upgrade EPN biocontrol activity. Specific abiotic stresses and response of definite EPN species to suitably fit into their related environments are emphasized. Optimizing EPNs-field performance using better nematode formulations, application timing, genetic approaches, and integrated techniques is discussed. Conclusion Many factors act upon EPNs and decide their success as BCAs. So, it is essential to better understand pressures on EPNs related to these factors and their relative significance in order to provide useful tools for improving EPN performance. Alleviating their relevant pressures can lead to more strategic and upgraded applications that enable EPNs to realize their top efficacy under various conditions. Eventually, EPNs can be incorporated into effective and sustainable integrated pest management plans to play a superior role.