Heterogeneous household responses and indoor temperature inequality in the clean heating transition

The residential clean heating transition has proven effective in reducing air pollution and improving public health. However, most research to date has focused on its economic and environmental implications, with limited attention being paid to household behavioral responses and heating experiences. To address this gap, we conducted household surveys in Linfen, a city in northern China, and analyzed residents’ self-reported indoor temperatures, heating costs, and heated areas before and after the transition. The results reveal substantial disparities across clean heating pathways. Compared with households that are continuing to use coal or biomass, those switching to gas experienced a 1.7 °C drop in indoor temperature and an annual cost increase of 1318 CNY, suggesting energy-limiting behaviors in response to higher expenses. In contrast, households adopting electric heating reported a 1.2 °C temperature increase without a significant rise in costs. Further analysis using the Gini coefficient and Oshima index shows that indoor temperature inequality increased among coal-to-gas households, while no such trend was observed among coal-to-electricity households. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating behavioral responses and thermal equity into the design of clean heating strategies.