Exposure assessment of PAHs on duplicate diet, indoor dust, and air measurements, and comparison with urinary biomonitoring: a family-based panel (CAFE-P) study

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are products of the incomplete combustion of organic materials. Understanding the major sources of PAH exposure and quantifying their contribution in the general population remains limited and fragmented. In the present study, we recruited a panel of families (48 households, 124 participants) and assessed their PAH exposure across three separate seasons through measurement of indoor air, dust, duplicate diets, and urinary biomarkers. Among the general population, oral dietary intake was identified as the primary contributor to PAH exposure, accounting for an average of 97.8 % of the total exposure. Inhalation exposure from indoor air contributed minimally (1.8 % for the median exposure group), but increased to 5.3 % among the high exposure group (upper 10th percentile). Approximately 32 % of the participants exhibited a potential cancer risk, primarily due to inhalation of NaP (45.3 %) and dietary ingestion of BaP (45.5 %) and DahA (8.1 %). Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) derived from urinary biomonitoring were up to two orders of magnitude higher than the total EDI calculated based on exposure scenarios, suggesting that EDIs based on the urinary metabolite levels may be exaggerated and subject to significant uncertainties.