Approaches for Assessment of Soil Moisture with Conventional Methods, Remote Sensing, UAV, and Machine Learning Methods—A Review

Soil moisture or moisture content is a fundamental constituent of the hydrological system of the Earth and its ecological systems, playing a pivotal role in the productivity of agricultural produce, climate modeling, and water resource management. This review comprehensively examines conventional and advanced approaches for estimation or measuring of soil moisture, including in situ methods, remote sensing technologies, UAV-based monitoring, and machine learning-driven models. Emphasis is primarily on the evolution of soil moisture measurement from destructive gravimetric techniques to non-invasive, high-resolution sensing systems. The paper emphasizes how machine learning modules like Random Forest models, support vector machines, and AI-based neural networks are becoming more and more popular for modeling intricate soil moisture dynamics with data from several sources. A bibliometric analysis further underscores the research trends and identifies key contributors, regions, and technologies in this domain. The findings advocate for the integration of physics-based understanding, sensor technologies, and data-driven approaches to enhance prediction accuracy, spatiotemporal coverage, and decision-making capabilities.