Pluralistic Extension Services for Smallholder Farmers in Developing Countries: A Bibliometric Review on Climate-Smart Agriculture Adoption

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption remains low in developing countries due to resource constraints and weak extension systems. This bibliometric review examines how pluralistic extension services (PES) support smallholder farmers in adopting CSA practices between 1995 and 2023. We synthesized 389 documents from Scopus using Biblioshiny in R to identify publication trends, regional collaborations, emerging research themes, and institutional contributions. Findings highlight that PES plays a significant role in scaling CSA in resource-constrained environments through participatory, digital, and inclusive models. Despite exponential publication growth, adoption challenges remain due to coordination gaps, weak ICT infrastructure, and limited integration of local knowledge systems. The study concludes with insights for policymakers and researchers on strengthening PES to improve CSA uptake among smallholders in the Global South.