Development and validation of the online instructor presence scale: Assessing the dimensions of online teaching

The literature on online presence suggests critical presences that an instructor must create in order to provide a comprehensive educational experience for the online learner. However, available validated research instruments have limitations in terms of assessing the nature and extent of instructors' presence in the online learning landscape. This study developed and validated an instrument for assessing instructor presence in an online learning environment. Four hundred and four students (285 men and 119 women) from a Ghanaian university, enrolled in various master's degree programmes during the 2021–2022 academic year, participated in the study. Based on the literature and expert consultations, we administered generated items to the students, adhering to the rudiments of the factor analytical framework (i.e., exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses). The factor analytical procedures produced 37 items that corresponded to four well‐validated and reliable factors: teaching presence (10 items, α = 0.92), cognitive presence (8 items, α = 0.91), social presence (9 items, α = 0.91) and emotional presence (10 items, α = 0.93). Gender measurement invariance was confirmed. Future studies can use the Online Instructor Presence Scale as a standardised tool to assess instructor presence in an online learning environment. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Instructor presence is increasingly recognised as a crucial factor in enhancing student learning, motivation and satisfaction in online learning. Research indicates four types of instructor presence: teaching, cognitive, social and emotional presence. Instructor presence has been expressed in terms of instructor's activities, instructor–student interactions and participation. Available validated research instruments have limitations in assessing the nature and extent of instructors' presence in the online landscape. What this paper adds Develops and validates an online instructor presence scale (OIPS) to assess instructor presence through the lens of postgraduate students. The OIPS examines all four dimensions of instructor presence, surpassing previous instruments that focused on one to three dimensions. Confirms gender measurement invariance, indicating that the OIPS operates similarly for both genders. Implications for practice and/or policy Stakeholders in education can use the OIPS to assess instructors' ability to create an online presence in virtual learning. Researchers can use the OIPS to assess students' perceptions of how instructors create presence in an online learning environment. The OIPS offers a platform for instructors, administrators and instructional designers to evaluate the institution's online teaching and learning activities. Instructors can foster effective learning and intellectual communities by cultivating the four types of presence.