Multi-Layered Analysis of TGF-β Signaling and Regulation via DNA Methylation and microRNAs in Astrocytic Tumors

Astrocytic tumors are a heterogeneous group of glial neoplasms characterized by marked differences in biological behavior and patient prognosis. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling plays a pivotal role in astrocytoma pathogenesis; however, the extent and mechanisms of its epigenetic regulation remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate how promoter methylation and microRNA-mediated mechanisms regulate key genes within the TGF-β signaling pathway across various astrocytoma grades. Tumor tissue samples from 65 patients with WHO grade II-IV astrocytomas were analyzed using Affymetrix gene expression and microRNA microarrays. Promoter methylation of TGF-β signaling genes was assessed using methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP). Gene expression was validated by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and protein levels were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). MicroRNA targets were predicted using bioinformatic tools, and survival analyses were conducted using Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression models. Six genes-<i>SMAD1</i>, <i>SMAD3</i>, <i>SKIL</i>, <i>BMP2</i>, <i>SMAD4</i>, and <i>MAPK1</i>-showed significant upregulation in high-grade tumors (fold change > 5.0, <i>p</i> < 0.05), supported by RT-qPCR and protein-level data. Promoter hypomethylation and reduced expression of regulatory microRNAs (e.g., hsa-miR-145-5p targeting SMAD3) were more common in higher-grade tumors. Protein-protein interaction analysis indicated strong functional interconnectivity among the overexpressed genes. High protein levels of SMAD1, SMAD3, and SKIL were significantly associated with shorter overall survival (<i>p</i> < 0.001). This multi-level analysis reveals that astrocytic tumor progression involves epigenetic derepression and microRNA-mediated dysregulation of TGF-β signaling. Elevated expression of SMAD1, SMAD3, and SKIL emerged as strong prognostic indicators, underscoring their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in astrocytic tumors.