Examining the interconnections among income, food prices, food insecurity, and health expenditure: a multicausality approach

These findings highlight the critical role of income inequality in worsening food insecurity and increasing health burdens. The observed mediation mechanisms also suggest that targeted, income group-specific interventions are needed to effectively mitigate the compounded impacts of food inflation on health systems. Addressing economic disparities, stabilizing food prices, and enhancing welfare systems could reduce both food-related and healthcare challenges. Future research should explore regional patterns and broader socioeconomic indicators to support sustainable policy design.