Drill, physical exercises, and outdoor games in English elementary schools, c.1870–1902, with particular reference to Birmingham

This article focuses on the development of physical education, broadly defined, for children in elementary schools in the late nineteenth century, with particular reference to the city of Birmingham, England. From 1871, schools were encouraged to incorporate military drill into the taught curriculum for children aged three to thirteen. Later, other forms of physical exercise were permitted and these were actively developed and promoted by the Birmingham School Board. In addition, from the 1880s, gymnastics, swimming, and outdoor games, especially team games, were increasingly available as extra-curricular activities. While extending the possibilities of physical education, these activities remained heavily dependent on external providers, such as the Physical Exercises Committee and the Birmingham Athletic Institute, and the voluntary efforts of teachers working out of school hours. Birmingham’s experience is set within the wider context of curricular change in elementary schools across England and Wales more generally. The discussion is informed and shaped by recent doctoral research (Felstead, 2023) on the pursuit of moral objectives in elementary education, especially the idea that children should acquire the habit of cheerful obedience which would serve them well in school and in adult life.