Optimizing processing conditions for crispy pork: A comparative study on frying and air baking focusing on heterocyclic amine formation and sensory attributes

High-temperature processing of meat products is prone to the formation of heterocyclic amines (HAAs), substances with potential carcinogenic risks. However, the regulatory mechanisms of HAAs in frying and air baking, as the main processing methods, are not yet well understood. This study systematically compares the effects of frying (140–220 ​°C, 180–260 ​s) and air baking (160–200 ​°C, 12–20 ​min) on the formation of HAAs, physicochemical properties, and sensory qualities of crispy fried pork. The HAA content was quantified by UPLC-MS/MS, and the mechanisms were revealed through electronic nose, low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), and texture analysis. The results showed that the total HAA content in fried samples was significantly higher than that in air-baked samples, but carcinogenic HAAs (IQ, MeIQx) were only stably detected in the baked samples (2.46–2.83 ​ng/g), which is attributed to the fact that baking requires 4–5 times more time than frying to achieve similar color and texture, allowing for the complete transformation of precursor substances (creatinine, glucose). Sensory and instrumental analyses indicated that the fried samples exhibited a stronger Maillard reaction, with aldehyde (S2 sensor response value 58.2 vs. 27.4 a.u.) and sulfur compound (S4 sensor 42.7 vs. 18.9 a.u.) levels 2.1 times higher than those in the baked samples. LF-NMR confirmed that the fried samples retained more bound water, significantly enhancing juiciness. Considering both HAA control (<50 ​ng/g) and sensory characteristics, frying at 180 ​°C for 180–220 ​s was identified as the optimal processing method. • Frying is 4–5 times more efficient than air baking for the same texture results. • Frying (180 ​°C 220 ​s) is the best process condition for crispy fried pork. • Air baking contains more carcinogenic HAAs.