Concentrations and Health Implications of As, Hg, and Cd and Micronutrients in Rice and Emissions of CH₄ From Variably Flooded Paddies

The flooded soil conditions under which rice is typically grown are beneficial for boosting yield and decreasing herbicide inputs but may pose a food safety and environmental health risk. Flooded soils lead to reducing conditions and anaerobic metabolisms of soil microorganisms, which mobilizes arsenic from soil into soil solution, where it can be absorbed by rice roots and transported to grain. These conditions also promote the production and emission of methane (CH₄)-a potent greenhouse gas. To evaluate how water management affects metal(loid) grain concentrations and CH₄ emissions, we conducted a 2-year field study in which rice paddy water was managed under a range of soil redox conditions that spanned from flooded to non-flooded. We observed that growing rice under less flooded conditions decreased CH₄ emissions and concentrations of grain total As, grain inorganic As, grain total Hg, and grain inorganic Hg relative to flooded conditions, with more reductions observed as conditions were drier; grain organic As and Hg (MeHg) species also decreased with drier conditions particularly in Year 1. However, the driest conditions tested led to a 50%-97% increase in grain Cd concentrations that exceeded the CODEX limit and grain yield reductions as high as 25% and 40% in Year 1 and 2, respectively. While concentrations of toxic metal(loid)s could be manipulated by water management, micronutrient concentrations were similar or decreased with drier conditions, potentially increasing grain Cd bioaccessibility to humans. Because practices for rice water management are gaining momentum, more research should monitor grain Cd levels along with micronutrients.