Climate change adaptation in NTFP-Based livelihoods: Impacts on female-headed households’ income in Limpopo, South Africa

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are essential to the livelihoods of rural communities and local economies, especially for women. However, their availability is increasingly jeopardized by climate change, which brings adverse weather events such as unpredictable temperature and rainfall fluctuations. This study examines the simultaneous adoption of multiple climate change adaptation (CCA) strategies and their impact on the net income derived from NTFPs by female-headed households in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Using cross-sectional data from 240 randomly selected households, a multivariate probit (MVP) model was employed to analyze the interdependent adoption of climate change adaptation (CCA) strategies, while the inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) model assessed the impact of these strategies on net NTFP income. The findings reveal significant interdependencies among CCA strategies, with some acting as substitutes and others as complements. Results from the IPWRA model demonstrate that adopting CCA strategies enhances net NTFP income for female-headed households. Additionally, socio-economic and institutional factors significantly influence CCA strategies’ adoption. This study highlights the importance of targeted policies and programs to address these factors, promoting the adoption and intensification of CCA strategies to mitigate climate change impacts and support sustainable livelihoods.