Trauma or taphonomy? A forensic reassessment of perimortem cranial trauma in burials from the Phaleron cemetery (Archaic Athens, Greece)

The Phaleron cemetery was one of the most important burial sites in Archaic Attica (8th–5th centuries BCE). Its burials include individuals showing signs of captivity (i.e., evidence of physical restraints) and are believed to potentially represent executed prisoners. This study reassesses the previously proposed presence of perimortem cranial trauma in these distinctive individuals, based on independent evaluations by two experienced forensic practitioners, a comparative sample of documented forensic trauma cases from modern Greece, and multivariate statistical analysis. Of the 19 crania analyzed, only two of the distinctive (or “D-Group”) burials showed clear evidence of perimortem trauma, with only one of these presenting all diagnostic perimortem indications. However, even in these cases, the consistent location of the fractures (mainly on the side of the skull) relative to the underlying soil, along with the water-rich nature of these seaside contexts, may also likely suggest a taphonomic origin. These results highlight the importance of contextual and environmental factors in trauma interpretation, emphasizing the value of documented forensic references and multivariate approaches that can assess multiple diagnostic traits together. More broadly, our findings underscore the need for caution when attempting to link skeletal trauma to the cause of death in bioarchaeological contexts, where long-term taphonomic effects can play a decisive role.