Life cycle assessment of batteries for maritime propulsion: A prospective perspective

Shipping accounts for approximately 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making maritime electrification a crucial strategy for decarbonization. This study assesses the life cycle impacts of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) and Sodium-ion (SIB) battery modules from a maritime perspective, focusing on climate change potential and crustal scarcity indicators. The findings indicate that LFP modules have about one-third the carbon footprint of SIB modules from 2025 to 2040. Both battery types significantly reduce life-cycle carbon emissions during this period, with LFP emissions dropping from 3 to 1.3 kg CO 2 -eq per kWh and SIB emissions from 8.7 to 3.6 kg CO 2 -eq per kWh, driven by technological advancements and a decarbonized electricity mix. The production phase, primarily due to the use of aluminum, steel, and copper, is the largest contributor to climate change impacts, though this decreases over time with energy decarbonization. SIB modules have a higher crustal scarcity impact due to their lower gravimetric density and cycle life, which affects material usage. However, the end-of-life phase shows greater material recovery benefits for SIB cell chemistry relative to LFP. The study underscores the importance of considering different electricity mixes and the uncertainties in recycling processes, which warrant further detailed analysis in future research.