Witnessing the transition from cold to temperate firn on Austfonna ice cap, Svalbard, through observations and model simulations

Abstract Refreezing is a critical component of the mass balance of glaciers in Svalbard, yet the processes and changes under a warming climate are not fully understood. Here, we investigate changes in firn properties of the Austfonna ice cap, Svalbard, using a combination of observations and model simulations. We analyze firn stratigraphy and density from five newly retrieved and 11 previously retrieved firn cores, collected at elevations ranging from 506 m a.s.l. to 791 m a.s.l. between 1958 and 2022. All cores exhibit frequent ice layers that indicate persistent refreezing of meltwater; however, no ice slabs (layers exceeding 1 m) were observed. A 13-year-long firn temperature time series from a site near the summit (773 m a.s.l.) shows that annual water percolation reaches depths of 7 m to over 13 m. A notable transition in the firn thermal regime occurred in 2013, transitioning from cold to temperate conditions above the firn-ice interface despite the seasonal cooling occurring in the upper firn layers. Simulations using the CryoGrid community model from 2009 to 2022 corroborate this thermal shift and suggest the development of a firn aquifer multiple times since 2013, with increasing duration and thickness over time.