Recent advances in self-powered implantable medical devices: Energy harvesting, conversion and therapeutic applications

Self-powered Implantable Medical Devices (SIMDs) have emerged with the convergence of bioelectronics and materials science, aiming to achieve autonomous power supply through integrated energy conversion modules. This reduces dependence of medical devices on external power sources while enhancing their portability and long-term stability, providing innovative solutions for power supply and therapy in the medical field. Their primary applications include physiological signal monitoring, promoting wound healing, tissue repair, and neural modulation. Device durability, energy conversion efficiency, and device miniaturization and integration are core challenges in the development of SIMDs. Recent years, researches on SIMDs have made significant progress in addressing these issues. This paper reviews recent advances in various SIMDs, including triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs), fuel cells, and wireless energy transfer technologies. Significant improvements in the energy harvesting and conversion efficiency of devices are discussed, as well as the use of advanced materials (e.g., biocompatible polymers and nanocomposites) to enhance the devices durability, and the multifunctional integration. These advancements have contributed to improving the reliability, efficiency, and miniaturization of SIMDs. In addition, challenges and future directions for SIMDs in clinical applications are proposed, emphasizing the development of high-performance biocompatible materials, optimization of energy management systems, and multifunctional integration. Overall, SIMDs provide novel opportunities for medical diagnosis, health monitoring, and therapeutic interventions, thereby establishing the foundation for its extensive application in precision medicine.