The Hindon River basin crisis: Anthropogenic and climatic impacts on groundwater depletion and public health risks

The Hindon River basin (HRB), one of the most polluted river basins in India. In this study, historic groundwater quantity and quality data from 2009 to 2022, along with 180 samples from shallow hand pumps collected during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons of 2023, were analyzed to understand the causative factors behind severe environmental degradation in HRB and its potential impact on human health. This study suggests that, in the midstream and downstream regions, 50–79 % of stations show significant groundwater declines, mainly due to high population density and increased industrial and agricultural demand. The source apportionment analysis revealed a strong correlation between ions such as Cl , Na + , SO 4 2 and NO 3 , indicating the influence of agricultural runoff and industrial discharges. The standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index for 2001–2020 indicated up to a 53 % increase in severe-to-extremely dry rainfall events, resulting in a decline in groundwater level. The health risk analysis revealed that the hazard index (HI) for children (HI = 1.95) and labour-intensive adults (HI = 1.79) was highly affected due to their higher ingestion rate and lower body weight. This study highlights the impact of rainfall, population growth, urban expansion, the presence of metals, textiles-dying, electroplating and paper and pulp industries and polluted rivers on groundwater resource degradation, emphasizing the need for targeted management strategies. • Significant groundwater level decline in mid and downstream regions. • Analysis indicates the influence of intense agriculture and industrial activities. • Health risks are primarily due to Cd, Mn, and NO 3 . • The higher risks are found for children and adults engaged in heavy activity.