Cascading Reliability of Multimodal Public Transit Networks With Higher Order Interactions

Over time, significant progress has been made in planning and managing public transit networks (PTNs). However, most research developments are confined to pairwise interactions, thus offering restricted perspectives on the comprehension of higher order PTN reliability, particularly the exploration of cascading failure for multimodal PTNs (MPTNs). Hence, on the basis of the conventional coupled map lattice (CML) model, we propose a cliquey CML model in which failure propagation can occur via interactions within cliques of varying scales to investigate the higher order cascading reliability of MPTNs. In addition, models are constructed for three PTN types: bus-only, bus-metro, and bus-metro-taxi/ride-hailing networks. With Beijing MPTNs as empirical examples, we design various attack strategies to explore the resilience characteristics of MPTNs after being destroyed from different perspectives. Overall, Beijing MPTNs display favorable resilience and cascading reliability in the face of intentional attacks, and PTNs considering higher order interactions display better network stability than lower order node-line networks do because of the effect of cliques. Additionally, MPTNs generally exhibit better survivability than unimodal PTNs in scenarios with low perturbations and collapse relatively quickly in cases with high perturbations. This article provides a theoretical foundation for advancing research on the higher order dynamics of MPTNs.