Differential use and effectiveness of practice testing: Who benefits and who engages?

Practice testing is an effective learning strategy, yet low-achieving students often underutilize it despite its benefits. This study investigates who benefits from and who engages in practice testing within an authentic educational setting. We collected data from 325 undergraduates (56 % self-identified as female) in a gateway mathematics course, combining survey responses, practice testing records, and exam performance (points, grades, passing). Employing regressions and prediction rule ensembles, we analyzed a comprehensive set of predictors (prior/current achievement, motivational beliefs, personality, and volitional factors). Increased practice testing was linked to improved exam performance, especially for students with moderate-to-high current achievement. Students with lower prior achievement were less likely to test themselves and required more practice testing attempts to achieve similar exam performance improvements. Predictors of practice testing included prior achievement, intrinsic value, and mastery goals. Therefore, integrating low-stakes testing with motivation-supportive interventions may reduce performance gaps and promote equity in higher education. • Practice testing benefits all students, especially higher-achieving and more motivated ones. • Low-achieving students require more attempts to achieve similar learning gains to higher-achieving peers. • Prior achievement and motivation predict students' use of practice testing and moderates its effect on exam performance. This study reveals a critical disparity in educational practices: students who are most likely to benefit from self-testing strategies are least likely to use them. Our findings reveal that this group tends to have lower intrinsic motivation and weaker mastery-approach goals, which likely hinder their engagement with self-testing. To address this disparity, interventions should focus on cultivating these key motivational prerequisites, thereby empowering low-performing students to adopt effective learning strategies. Integrating self-testing into curricula and promoting self-regulated learning skills may enhance participation among low-achieving students. These findings offer actionable insights for educators, administrators, and policymakers aiming to improve academic outcomes and promote equitable learning opportunities in higher education.