Geographical authentication of rose cakes <i>via</i> integrated HS-SPME-GC-MS, GC-IMS, and chemometric profiling

The flavor profiles of rose cakes derived from roses cultivated in distinct geographical regions exhibit notable variations. This study aimed to compare volatile flavor compounds in rose cakes to identify regional distinctions. Roses from Shandong (SD), Henan (HN), Xinjiang (XJ), Yunnan (YN), and Gansu (GS) were processed into cakes, and their volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were analyzed using electronic nose (e-nose), electronic tongue (e-tongue), headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS), and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS). Flavor fingerprints were established <i>via</i> relative aroma activity values (ROAVs) and principal component analysis (PCA). The results revealed distinct profiles: YN samples showed elevated alcohols and aldehydes, HN contained higher ketones, GS exceeded 50% alcohol content, and Yunnan samples exhibited the most complex flavor profile, whereas Henan and Shandong samples displayed pronounced fruity, sweet, and herbaceous notes. Gansu samples demonstrated distinct floral dominance. This study enhances understanding of regional flavor variations in rose cakes and provides insights for product differentiation and consumer guidance. It empowers consumers to verify product authenticity, combatting food fraud, while supporting rural economies through geographically indicated (GI) certification.