A multinational cross-sectional study on the prevalence and predictors of long COVID across 33 countries

The symptoms of long COVID (LC) can be debilitating and may be associated with anxiety, social stigma, and quality of life deterioration. Identifying patients at risk of LC is important to offer follow-up care and plan population-level public health measures. The current multinational study aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of LC in the general population. We conducted an online, multinational, cross-sectional survey between April 2022 and January 2023, targeting participants 18 years and older with a previously confirmed COVID-19 infection. We used convenience sampling to recruit participants through an online Google form. We collected demographic data, past medical history, infection details, post-COVID-19 symptoms, and quality of life. Responses were then translated into English. LC was defined as per the World Health Organization. A single-variable analysis was conducted to identify factors significantly associated with LC development. Following the removal of multicollinear variables, a generalized linear model was established to estimate the contribution of different predictors to LC occurrence. A total of 11,801 respondents from 33 countries were included in the analysis. The mean age for participants was 32.7 ± 12.8 years, with 61% being females. BMI averaged 25.2 ± 4.8 across participants, and 14.8% of them were smokers. Seventy-eight percent of participants reported receiving the COVID-19 vaccine. Respondents with PCR-confirmed COVID-19 were then categorized into those with LC (N = 2335, 19.8%) and without LC (N = 9466 individuals, 80.2%). Our model identified 25 significant predictors. The predictors of higher LC risk included ICU admission (OR 2.08; 95% CI 1.36, 3.18; P = 0.001), female sex (OR 1.8; 95% CI 1.61, 2.02; P < 0.001), fatigue during the infection (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.43, 1.78; P < 0.001), identifying as Hispanic (OR 1.53; 95% CI 1.26, 1.85; P < 0.001), and pre-existing gastrointestinal disease (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.22, 1.8; P < 0.001). In conclusion, we identified key LC predictors, including ICU admission, female sex, and acute fatigue as primary risk factors, while African American and Asian ethnicities and receiving even one dose of vaccination demonstrated protective effects.

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Scientific Reports
Published
2025-08-03
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10120-z
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4
Primary Topic
Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
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article
Field-Weighted Citation Impact
5.56

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article

A multinational cross-sectional study on the prevalence and predictors of long COVID across 33 countries

Seyhan Türk, Mohammed Amir Rais, Nagwan Yousef, Abdelkader Nabeel Malih et al.
4 citations
Scientific Reports
Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
5.56
article

A multinational cross-sectional study on the prevalence and predictors of long COVID across 33 countries

Seyhan Türk, Mohammed Amir Rais, Nagwan Yousef, Abdelkader Nabeel Malih, Sana Asghar, Khaled Abouelmagd, Saja Emad Abusabha, Anwar Yousef Jabari, Rini Devijаnti Ridwаn, Ahmed Hashem Fathallah, Mohammed Al‐kafarna, Carlos Valencia, Ahmed Sadeq Maknoon, Mohamed Sayed Zaazouee, P. Ghattas, Mahmoud Alfituri Abushiba, Raga A. Elzahaf, Anas Zakarya Nourelden, Abdinoor Mohamed, Jasmin Thomas, Devika Nair, Anas Ishqair, M.A. Guerrero, Dina Ibrahim, Mohamed Mamdouh, Joana Seabra, Sajeda Ghassan Matar, Asmaa Gomaa Alwarraqi, Abdelrahman Ibrahim Abushouk, Paul Estrada, Mariachiara Bosco, Khaled A. Almehdawi, Dini Setyowati, Hamid Magzoub, O.S. Zahra, Nsabimana Bénit, Md Ariful Haque, Adel Mohamed Aboregela, Hasan Shahriar, Omar H. Salloum, Nastiti Faradilla Ramadhani, Michael A Negussie, Mohammad Ali, Engy A. Wahsh, Akash Saha, Mohamed Elshennawy, Mohamed Masoud, Fida Hussien Al-Ali, Mahmoud M. Elhady, Eman Mahmoud, Bashar Khaled Almaghary, Talha Omer, Faisal Ismail, Nishant Cherian, Aisha Hasan ibreerah, Shahin Ahmed, Zeinab Hammoud, Filipa Sousa, Evangelia Samara, Gloria Evdoxia Izountouemoi, Fahmida Aslam, Beta Novia Rizky, Abdelrahman Mohamed Mahmoud, Yahaya Fatihu Adam, Adekunle Adedeji, Alexander Patera Nugraha, Ahmed Alsoufi, Hivan Haji Rashid, Andra Rizqiawan, Iman A. Basheti, Ahmed Taher Masoud, Salaar Liaqat, Ali Hosni, Mahdi Salah Mahdi, Andrés Estrella Terneux, Subhasish Roy, Darya Salih Hussein, Solay Farhat, Shereen Elsayed Tawfeek, Zenat Khired, Hasan Al‐Omari, Aseel Ahmad Alkhraibat, Mihai Pop, Diah Savitri Ernawati, Malak Yousef Badawi, Narjiss Aji, Abdelrahman H. Hafez, Indiana Castro, Rasheedat Mobolaji Ibraheem, Kamel Khurshid Murad, Amnah A. Alharbi, Maha Jabir Omran, Ronaldo Sousa Oliveira Filho, Mai AlAdwan, Shivabalan Kathavarayan Ramu, Jeremiah Oluwatomi Itodo Daniel, Agathi Karakosta, Nafisa Agil Hussein, Tamara Tango, Irankunda Kévin, Khaled Mohamed Ragab, Walid Abdel‐Aziz, Hatem Khalaf, Konstantinos D Stamatis, Hossam Waleed Almadhoon, S Thabit, Tahreem Chaudhry, Mohamed Aboul Ezz, Shaheen Ahmed, Raneem Ahmed Egzait, Sebahat Nacar Doğan, Abubakar Ahmed, Mohamed A. El-Saied, Samuel Mesfin, Hadir Atef Soliman, Alaa Ahmed Elshanbary, E. Prieto, Monica Adhiambo Onyango, Doaa Salah Elgendy, Agung Sosiawan, Sawsane A. Ghaddar, Carlos Hernández, Naomi Chinyere Chikezie, Tabarak Qassim, Eman Khaled, Fabio Deltreggia, Musab Bouhajra, Fatema E Nur Mou, Samia Kessab, Arwa Aboumedian, Rania Saad Ramadan, Sarah Makram Elsayed, Akash Verma, Asmaa Mohamed Saber, Raed Odeh, A Chowdhury, Eman Ayman Nada, Mostafa Ahmed Elsayed, Taufan Bramantoro, Maryam Abdulkarim, A K Azad Khan, Bishal Dahal Khatri, Shahrzad Tavakkoli, A Saleh, Victor Carrera Gomes, Ali Ismail, Z. Ali, Hemani Patel, M. Mazen Jamal, Javeria Ikram, P. Pop, Ahmed N Assar, Mohamed A. Abd Elhameed, Samia Chaib, Fatima Ibrahim, Rashid Ibrahim, Fatma Alsharif, Hadil Hussain Hamza, Misbah Akhtar, Bilal Abdullahi Muhammad, M. Amrani, Syed Zaidi, Fatima Asedeq Abdulali, Ratri Maya Sitalaksmi, Suleiman Ayalew Belay, Elaf M. H. Abdelraheem, Jegr Waad Farj, Huzan Hashim Arsalan, Fitsum Assefa Gemechu, Hazem Abu El-Enien, Wessam Mady, Hala Jamal Redwan, Fatima Ibrahim Abushaala, Rayyan Ahmad Al-Qaryouti, Baha’ Ghandi Mohammad Aljeradat, Sally S. Alabdullah, Ali Asghar Bhutto, Faiza Qamar, Hussein Kameran Jabbar, Belal Shohayeb, Hanem Ellethy, Esmail Abdelmonem, Feven Mekonnen Belay, Aiman Al-Khadher, Ahmed Mohamed Nour El-deen, Roa’a Mohammad Aljuneidi, Mai Mohammad Abdalraouf, Taghreed Reda Moustafa, Aya Mohamed Rabie Abd Elghany, Eden Haile Hagos, Hisham Alhosni, Jalal Almeer, Salmah Meteran Alrshedi, Rowa sirelkhatim mohamedahmed, Roaa Ahmed Elobeid, Basel Adel Mohammed Basrawi, Walaa Ismat Mubark Abdelmgeed, Hajar Abdalrazak Alhakari, Fatima Abd Elmonim Mohammed Abd Elkareem, Iman Hisham Abd Elraheem Merghani, Israa Mohammed Benismail, Haya Ahmed Hijazi, Esraa Emad Alazq, Zakaria Abdallah Abu Elkishik, Taima Nemir Awamleh, Lana Adel Tannous, Nour Mohammad Abumurra, Wasan Fawzi Alsafadi, Darine Touka, Pantazi Danai, Ghulam Mujtaba Mughal, Sidra Absar, Sana Hilal, Ikram Uddin panhwar, Durojaye Aishat Bisoye, Jesutomini Esther Abikoye, Opara Franklyn Chiemekam, Faheema Rafo Khalaf, Dlnaz Ayoub Abdi, Sefina Gwachha, Saroma Awal, Vivekanand lekhak, Pop Dariana, Miruna Doru, Rus Nicolae-Dochian, Rigman Darius-Gabriel, Ene Andrei-Iulian, Bogdan Adrian Buta, Raul Petric, Mira A. O. Alabadla, Moosa Munawar AlHoda, Kevin Regi, Waleed Sameer Abdulkarim Mohamed Affoni, Nour El Houda Ben Jouda, Akil Vaibhav, Rishi Bhatele, Nazifa Tahseen Akhi, Sabrina Sultana Liza, Shirsendu Nag Saikat, Khandker Saadiqul Quader, Anju Beesetty, Ebisa Damesa Amensisa, Ajmina Hasan Flabe, Juan Carlos Panchi Jima, María José Rengel Chalco, Walter Alexis Encalada Collahuazo, Karla Alejandra Chiliquinga Jácome, Niyonkuru Fabrice, Maramuke Carine, Crispine Harushimana, Iteka Délissa Carmella, Mfuranzima Japhet, Irakoze Clovis, Zeynep Ceren Zekey, Mustafa Mehmetoğlu, Fouziya Neyyar, Carlos Emilio Hernández Mancia, Tania Elizabeth Bolaños Rosero, Priscilla Lopez Ahumada, Fatima Zahra Aboumedian, Oumaima Kenna, Amal Shukri Ali Abdulqader Al-Akhdhary, Hedaya Ramzi Khrawat, Yousef Raid AbdAlrazeq, Shomoa Alaa Elhajjar, Yousuf Mohammed Deeb, Nusaiba Mohamad Al Zaalan, Bethel Abraha Gebremeskel, Arun Quadros Darian, Gabriela Maria Roncon, Nada Mohammed Abdel-Aziz Mohammed Zaho, Kimanthi Cyrus, Waseth Joy Noela, Preetesh Jakharia, Ghadeer Magdy Elshafey, Ahmed Gamal Ahmed Shetia, Ghader Mofed Alibrahem, Hala Aldeeb, Nouha Halim Moustafa, Souliman Ahmad Radeef, Lina Dalati, Elaf Sa’ad Aldeen Alashkar, Bouchra Belhocine, Hadil Elbatoul Meguellatni, Hanane Hammoumi, Hadjer Belmerabet, Rayhana Khellafi, Bouthaina Memmou, Abdelkader Kherbache
article en
4 citations

Abstract

The symptoms of long COVID (LC) can be debilitating and may be associated with anxiety, social stigma, and quality of life deterioration. Identifying patients at risk of LC is important to offer follow-up care and plan population-level public health measures. The current multinational study aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of LC in the general population. We conducted an online, multinational, cross-sectional survey between April 2022 and January 2023, targeting participants 18 years and older with a previously confirmed COVID-19 infection. We used convenience sampling to recruit participants through an online Google form. We collected demographic data, past medical history, infection details, post-COVID-19 symptoms, and quality of life. Responses were then translated into English. LC was defined as per the World Health Organization. A single-variable analysis was conducted to identify factors significantly associated with LC development. Following the removal of multicollinear variables, a generalized linear model was established to estimate the contribution of different predictors to LC occurrence. A total of 11,801 respondents from 33 countries were included in the analysis. The mean age for participants was 32.7 ± 12.8 years, with 61% being females. BMI averaged 25.2 ± 4.8 across participants, and 14.8% of them were smokers. Seventy-eight percent of participants reported receiving the COVID-19 vaccine. Respondents with PCR-confirmed COVID-19 were then categorized into those with LC (N = 2335, 19.8%) and without LC (N = 9466 individuals, 80.2%). Our model identified 25 significant predictors. The predictors of higher LC risk included ICU admission (OR 2.08; 95% CI 1.36, 3.18; P = 0.001), female sex (OR 1.8; 95% CI 1.61, 2.02; P < 0.001), fatigue during the infection (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.43, 1.78; P < 0.001), identifying as Hispanic (OR 1.53; 95% CI 1.26, 1.85; P < 0.001), and pre-existing gastrointestinal disease (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.22, 1.8; P < 0.001). In conclusion, we identified key LC predictors, including ICU admission, female sex, and acute fatigue as primary risk factors, while African American and Asian ethnicities and receiving even one dose of vaccination demonstrated protective effects.

Scientific ReportsVol. 15(1)
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