Carbon footprints of cut-flower supply chains: Comparative analyses and mitigation pathways

The global cut-flower industry, valued at billions of dollars annually, plays a significant role in international trade and consumer markets. However, its supply chains are associated with substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, driven by energy-intensive cultivation, cold-chain logistics, and long-distance transportation. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the carbon footprints of cut-flower supply chains, highlighting comparative analyses across different production systems, transportation modes, and geographic regions. Evidence from life cycle assessment (LCA) studies reveals that greenhouse-based cultivation in temperate regions, such as the Netherlands, generates higher emissions than open-field production in tropical countries like Kenya or Colombia, primarily due to heating and artificial lighting requirements. Conversely, long-haul air freight significantly elevates the footprint of flowers produced in low-emission regions, offsetting the benefits of favorable growing conditions. Mitigation pathways include the integration of renewable energy sources in greenhouse operations, optimization of cold-chain logistics, adoption of sea freight transport, and deployment of biodegradable packaging. Furthermore, certification schemes and carbon labeling can incentivize low-emission practices across the sector. Despite advances in emission reduction strategies, data gaps persist in standardized LCA methodologies, regional emission inventories, and end-of-life waste management practices. This review underscores the urgent need for coordinated technological, logistical, and policy interventions to decarbonize the global cut-flower supply chain. By identifying emission hotspots and feasible mitigation strategies, this study provides a foundation for future research and supports the transition toward a more sustainable and climate-resilient floriculture industry.