<i>Genio Latino</i> (Mexico City, 1930–1950): An Anti-Fascist Interpretation of the Concept of <i>Latinità</i>

Mexico was not a significant destination for the millions of Italians who crossed the Atlantic between 1880 and the outbreak of the First World War. Low salaries and a restrictive immigration policy made the country a relatively unattractive destination for European economic migrants. In 1930, fewer than ten thousand Italians resided there (Savarino Roggero 2003, 43).1 Furthermore, the small Italian colonia in Mexico was quite receptive to Fascism. The fascio of Mexico City was founded in 1927 and, with the assistance of the Italian diplomatic corps in the country, managed to enroll a sizable portion of the capital's Italian population within several years. Nevertheless, a small but meaningful anti-Fascist presence did exist. Italian anti-Fascists in Mexico, in those early years, mainly were divided into two groups: the Lega Internazionale Antifascista, of Communist inspiration; and the Alleanza Antifascista, of a radical Socialist character organized around the journalist Nanni Leone Castelli. While the Lega found support from various Mexican and transnational Marxist collaborators, Castelli's problem was more difficult. How could the representative of a small minority of an already modest immigrant community produce a credible alternative to the torrent of Fascist propaganda that emanated from Italian officials in the country? Genio Latino represented perhaps Castelli's most imaginative attempt to solve this dilemma. Genio Latino, which managed to secure the financial support of the French legation in Mexico, endeavored to propagate a vision of a shared latinità, or “latinness,” common to the speakers of romance languages and especially to those nations that had formed part of the Entente during the First World War. Castelli's message looked to leverage Garibaldi's legacy of volunteerism for “the freedom of oppressed peoples” (Acciai 2021, 4), celebrated the democratic ideals of the French Revolution of 1789, and highlighted the danger to Latin peoples everywhere of the expansionist tendencies of the Germanic world.Genio Latino was a rather curious enterprise. It was undoubtedly anti-Fascist, but anti-regime propaganda was not its only purpose; articles explicitly denouncing Fascism were occasional and showed nowhere near the level of vitriol that Castelli displayed in other forums. It was pro-French, the early issues almost laughably so, but the magazine's objectives went beyond this. Genio Latino reported on and analyzed political leaders and movements in what Castelli considered to be the Latin countries of Europe and those in Latin America. It also celebrated literature, music, and art from the same parts of the world, often attempting to link a shared cultural heritage with the need for contemporary diplomatic cooperation. The magazine was also remarkably long-lived. Whereas anti-Fascist propaganda outlets regularly came and went after only a few issues, Genio Latino survived for at least twenty years, evolving all the while; by the late 1930s, it had pivoted much of its focus to Latin America, with special attention given to Chile and the nations of the historic Gran Colombia.While Genio Latino is mentioned in several texts, it has yet to be the subject of an academic study. This article intends to follow the twenty-year trajectory of this little-known Italian exile publication, not only for the light it will shed on Castelli's efforts to contest Fascist influence in Mexico but also in hopes of contributing to the discussion around several broader historical questions. Which strategies allowed Italian diaspora journalism to survive, or even thrive, in peripheral locations far from the immigrant masses of New York City or Buenos Aires? How did anti-Fascist journalists, such as Castelli in his Mexican period, offer competing articulations of some of the same themes that Mussolini emphasized? This study will draw upon a wide range of archival sources. The most complete collection of Genio Latino is on microfilm at the New York Public Library. The Archives nationales (Pierrefitte-sur-Seine, France) preserves correspondence between Castelli and various French institutions. Also relevant are the surveillance files regarding Castelli in the Casellario politico centrale (Archivio centrale dello Stato, Rome), as well as those in the archives of the Mexican Dirección General de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociales at the Archivo General de la Nación in Mexico City, and the US Department of State Central Decimal Files (National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD).Any attempt to understand Genio Latino requires an understanding of Castelli, its sole editor for the entirety of its lifespan. As Nigel Copsey has pointed out, diasporic anti-Fascism had its “linchpins,” central figures around whom the movement organized itself (2021, 36). Castelli fulfilled this role in Mexico in the late 1920s and early 1930s, and yet he remains relatively little studied. Franco Savarino Roggero's recent article (2024) is the most complete study of his life.2 Savarino Roggero's (2002, 2003, 2012) earlier works on the interactions between Italy and Mexico during the Fascist era and Angelo Principe's (1999) study of the Canadian Italian Fascist press also touch on Castelli's various initiatives, both Fascist and anti-Fascist. Also of note is Michele Presutto's (2011) brief biography of Castelli. None of these authors, however, undertake a comprehensive study of Genio Latino.Giovanni Leone Castelli was born in 1899 in San Severo (Foggia province, Apulia). While little is known about his early childhood, it is clear that his “subversive” behavior began during early adolescence. Castelli belonged to the local camera del lavoro, or trade union, at only thirteen or fourteen years of age. He also collaborated with Socialist groups and underwent criminal proceedings on several occasions (Castelli 1927). He was possessed of a certain intelligence; at only sixteen years old, he was already fulfilling a leadership role in local Socialist circles (“Modello A,” 1915). Shortly thereafter, Castelli declared himself an anarchist and was responsible for numerous antiestablishment demonstrations. By this time, he was being closely monitored by the local authorities. His behavior was so extreme that his father, worried for his son's safety, attempted (unsuccessfully) to have him admitted to a reformatory. Significantly, for the young Castelli, anarchism and socialism were not necessarily contrasting or incompatible ideologies but, rather, two useful tools for combating the injustice inherent in the prevailing social and economic order. Rather than youthful naivete, this ideological flexibility would be a defining feature of Castelli's journalistic career and political trajectory.In 1917, Castelli was drafted into the army. After Italy's catastrophic defeat at Caporetto, he was sent to the front, where he was injured. At a certain point, Castelli wrote to Gaetano Salvemini's l'Unità, complaining that local authorities had searched his house while he was serving his country at the front. His occasional correspondence with Salvemini is interesting in that he boasted of having intentionally carried out his service as a “simple soldier” and not as part of the more privileged officer class (Castelli 1927). He would repeat this line for decades, attributing to himself and his fellow veterans a of the made in the and the legacy of a shared with the French and the democratic the Castelli his to in criminal were him (“Modello his brief in Castelli was a in the local The that had on Castelli not be He a on the in which has as in the years, Genio Latino would numerous to and the his to Castelli in the local fascio and to a In of he was from the fascio of for of a in his anti-Fascist years, he would not his in the of and he having belonged to the Fascist As he to Salvemini in was with the with the with the with the the Fascist (Castelli for in to the of the he was but his In New York City, Castelli the of a by his for Genio Latino, Castelli attempted to a magazine that would the efforts of young and and While in New York City, Castelli in with a young His however, the of and the to In Castelli founded an and He that in the to the the Italian Canadian community about to after only several Castelli was of having the of his he was of the in to the Castelli to Italy in several Castelli's only to Fascist and his that this to his with the Castelli to the this to Mexico City, in to his in New York City and he was a of Fascism but a of The for his political of is not that Castelli's from Fascism had its in his to the but between and Mussolini and out that Castelli's leadership of the fascio of was more on than Fascism. are It is also that Castelli a between the early Fascism of the years and the that came to (Castelli As the Fascist its it began to some of what Castelli as Italy's most and and to with and that Castelli considered and In he these in a to He the Fascist of the of the of the of and his and of the of the Castelli also the character of the Fascist that has that would not even in He his with the that as Italy is by not to an Italian (Castelli his early years in Mexico Castelli's political was by two contrasting Fascist propaganda in Mexico and a anti-Fascist As far as anti-Fascist propaganda was Castelli had the most with Mexican institutions. and he at least anti-Fascist articles in the of the articles such as of and of the in Castelli attempted to the of Fascist Italy by the Italian diplomatic in in Castelli his Mexican that “the in Mexico, by the This a the between Castelli and The Italian legation in Mexico the of was the support for Castelli. His as a for Mexican authorities by the Italian support for the the Mexican 1927). also Castelli's attempt to anti-Fascists in Mexico, the Antifascista, was a was the Alleanza Antifascista, formed in The of the Italian legation only Italian and Mexican of the the to have than its In to the anti-Fascist and Fascist in Mexico, the Alleanza organized its some of which are as shed some light on a that Castelli would also with Genio the in Italy with the for in the interesting in this was the of the in that Italian were in two a in of the of in by a in of the to in the of Italian anti-Fascism was by Fascist in the Socialist would of the In 1927 the Alleanza the of his Castelli to the of his the Italian he that Mussolini had sent and represented a even in Mexico have already the Alleanza was not the only attempt to anti-Fascists in Mexico in the late The Lega Internazionale the of the Italian Communist and The Lega mainly in with Mexican and transnational Communist groups such as the of the and de the during the World between Communist and anti-Fascist groups in the the Alleanza and the Lega were in a with the of While the Lega the of the Mexican Communist to Castelli of and Castelli his in the Mexican to the Italian in the country as (Castelli to the Alleanza in Italian surveillance files to around not it was at this same that Castelli began to to himself as the local representative of a the in and by the Socialist the a certain upon Castelli that the Alleanza had The and the Alleanza in Mexico for some time, and there was between the political of the two In Castelli's within the Italian community was during this time, as a of the of and into the the Castelli Genio Latino in As Genio various propaganda some so as to was more than a an article in to the French and is a of Castelli attempted to his as both and is more interesting than his is that Castelli did not a or attempt to a French in he his support for as a and for a democratic Italian to Castelli would his by to a shared Latin or latinità, often only and to his as a First World and a The will Castelli attempted to an that would Genio Latino to the of its French legation in also Fascist propaganda and Latin and have pointed out that the of was also to Mussolini and his the de la a transnational of from the Latin countries of Europe and America, was organized in to the of other In the Fascist a that the and the Latin of the with in a role Castelli, the the Latin peoples as the of a cultural This was on the legacy of and its upon peoples but also upon the of the Italian the the made of the of in service of a more both at Italian immigrant and it was not a of the Fascist did to its influence in Latin America. The message would in where a sizable Italian community would with an and In cultural such as the and looked to a between Italy and the local these efforts would to from Italy in to the in where Italian were not the attempted to the of to the population of the The of Mexico, most relevant to this was rather as Savarino Roggero has a with the Mexico as a for Italy's and cultural in Latin America. Latin to Italian was undoubtedly of the as the propaganda of the would the of cultural represented “the privileged of for the Fascist Italy's of in Mexico also the in to the (Savarino Roggero 2003, that a common could be a for had that Fascism. As has had in Europe the of the with as the Nevertheless, by the early there was a Latin that were in need of the of and countries In some Castelli was for this It is a that he in the of the of Genio Latino to his as a pro-French, and democratic of various Castelli's in both the and the there is a years of by Castelli in of in in and in In this brief Castelli that the Italian and the Italian to the and and not with the Central of the this however, the most part of this is the of Castelli's earlier in the de la in the leadership of attempted to from and organized of and a the In Atlantic America, as has Italians the of latinità, or to to a broader and more in and the of the Italian of Buenos a collection of and a that for the nations and Italy to a Latin Significantly, in this there was also for are is also Castelli's of in the of on in Mexico at the In the of has out for its to the of in the of In as a of the of a or which would the of all the did not that was to In of however, the late and early Mexican a for who were as from a and cultural and Mexico numerous that Italian Castelli's European a relatively privileged in early issues of Genio Latino Castelli's of in two by to Latin to by the magazine and its various political initiatives, and by a of that the of European Latin and highlighted the and the The issues of Genio Latino were sent to and of Mexico City who was with or with Castelli made a of these not as but as in Genio as in the the of that between Latin peoples during the World which was and to the efforts of the a of and Latin so that all will what is for to its the support in a and the of between the two nations which are to in the of and this he a to at and those who with and the to his In this of a to Genio Latino, other Latin of the Mexican to and contributing regarding the various Latin In years, Genio Latino would on its to to a for the of the at and for a to in Genio Latino its of to with Latin Italy in its with to with Latin its Germanic and to support the Latin of the in the of In service of this Castelli numerous often the of by historical the that political between and was the of a common Latin the article in the was and French are the of the same and are of the same It was on the of a by the French himself of Italian in of of on the of the the Italians and French that are from and to common to Latino its message of Latin and by the historical and contemporary cultural of what Castelli considered to be Latin The articles on the various of Italian the French and and the as by the Italian however, were the to the of Latin Genio its to the and who was in the also for his The a to the who a in all that is Latin and has declared his for this country which is the of Latin in the early issues of Genio Latino as to the of Castelli's of latinità, his y was even more The was of his during the early that Italy with are and be found in all of In the in the in the in in that and Italy and a a the the of the the of (Castelli central of Genio early years was to Fascism. While the the of that “the of Mussolini could in Latino, the magazine from the of that Castelli had the in Genio Latino attempted to the Italian as to and with to the editor from French that peoples in in and in an of the and that have as a heritage a for the such as a of from attempted to link the of Latin the for As he this of the Fascist Castelli himself of historical of beyond the of that were central to the Fascist most was for in Europe and the him the or the of two As (2021, has after the of various Italian after not in a but was in of to Castelli the of that most with Fascist such as of from and is the of the from the democratic and and not the and as the of the Italian Genio Latino also to the of and especially his historical to the Latin articles Genio of Garibaldi's volunteerism in of during the of to Castelli's Mexican in from Garibaldi's was in Also significant in this were the of organized by Castelli's of the and reported on by Genio As has the of as and had the and of a part of the Italian community in Latin the anti-Fascist in whom Castelli was not to he also attempted to influence in the other Latin immigrant and the His of the Mexican with was a attempt to the Fascist also attempted to Garibaldi's heritage for In on the of the of Garibaldi's and anti-Fascists in Mexico City competing the of Genio Latino its that and will be with and all or historical legacy from the Latin that Genio Latino endeavored to with Fascist was that of the French In Genio Latino an to the of and on Latin America. the Mexican at the time, an of the of the and its influence on the of in which he that the had a of and At the same time, the had the of and the The from the to Mexico, de la that “the of the Revolution will the for the Latin in its political and social la few years Genio Latino would so far as to Italian itself to the influence of the French Castelli's in of the the for the for the that oppressed Italy in the all this has the of the French (Castelli his Fascist Castelli on Latin heritage and expansionist with a and In in a from Genio Latino the of a of in and attempt to the legacy of the The article of and and his to the of Furthermore, Castelli Fascist with the Italian of the late In in Castelli the of the to in an Italy's in these same Castelli Fascist to its for the and defeat in the First World is in Italy is a of the as in the of with the of and Italian (Castelli Latino also Fascism in more the a who had his rather than was regularly as were the anti-Fascists and the magazine celebrated the whom it on the in and of the Socialist Genio Latino almost attention to the the that most the of the Italian anti-Fascist diaspora from to While in Italy Castelli was more to the between and He this of not to the French policy of in which was in with the of support for oppressed peoples that Genio Latino so often Significantly, the who in Mexico a certain for country and its to this was upon not a shared cultural heritage but also for social and common to both the Mexican Revolution and the this Castelli not to have to the into his to it was during the of the that Genio Latino began to to the and of the The for was to the country of in was in In this Castelli into with the US Department of State The of his with the authorities was He managed to press in for of his is is that the Genio Latino to be class from the of the and Castelli to be editor who is to US this with Castelli was being in the of years of the World were a of for Genio Latino and Castelli. to Savarino Roggero Castelli showed of with Fascism around for from the US archives was even more It Castelli of being an an and a with the of While it is that he had to be a significant for the Italian diplomatic corps in Mexico, the him of are almost The on Castelli was in to an on his character by a known de the about the the European Castelli in a Genio Latino is perhaps the to his at that the of Genio Latino during and made it clear that Castelli was to Fascism. such as for or (Castelli and Italian the little for that Castelli considered himself an anti-Fascist. the of the and on the but for to Genio Latino regarding As late as Genio have in will to (Castelli was by a article on who will the (Castelli Genio Castelli out that Italy would not the on the of the In Genio Latino be with a collection of by in which the that the had the the defeat of the French and the of a at however, Castelli's more Latino attempted to its and to the of Latin more In is the and de la that would its did not Genio Latino to support or Fascism but rather to as a and and to his as upon him by that could have Castelli so far as to that the radical of French Genio Latino had in had more of Fascist leaders than was (Castelli Nevertheless, Genio Latino rather support for certain of the the of the a modest and the of French who the that in far from and the political The of and was in of the same with a of by an of young in a Castelli the of and with the of represented in the the Latin and with all of its that to the and will the French of Genio Latino a of which from it has not to archival from this that the on between Castelli and support for also the of the magazine's of to Fascism as and Castelli on the that in Fascist on the on the and, most on the of a with the Italian In Castelli's all of this was a that to the of the Italian army. In he years of of all the of the Italian has that it has not to a of with the so in the in (Castelli in the World and European more around the of This with two significant the of by the and the of diplomatic between Mexico and While the Castelli of his to as the would have made French financial support for Genio Latino difficult. this most of Genio were with to Latin and Castelli a in the himself on the of political of Genio Latino was the and his In the Italian legation in Mexico that Castelli financial support from “the of several in While it is not to the it is in the of Latin that it that Castelli's to democratic was at Whereas he the for in he did not to support leaders in Latin America, such as and the of the Genio Latino was in The issues much in the years after the twenty issues were between and little attention Castelli to Europe in this was on often regarding The of Genio Latino in the New York Public collection is which from in the of and Castelli, the in and the Italian in of Garibaldi's Latino was not a it Castelli with more than a modest Nevertheless, its is as the was an early of a that other of Fascism would in a significant Italian the to other for As have Genio Latino French financial and support by the Fascism in the of a Latin of and that both the French Revolution and the in the years of the World Italian anti-Fascists in Mexico would numerous works Mussolini as a to both and Franco as to with more and exile as has it was not even in the early years of the for the anti-Fascist press to the of Fascism to freedom Genio Latino was as it attempted to leverage of Italian to an alternative vision of that would with Fascist and