Non-monotonic effect of Stokes number on turbulence modulation in particle-laden channel flow

The effect of Stokes number on turbulence modulation in particle-laden channel flow is investigated through four-way coupled point-particle direct numerical simulations, with the mass loading fixed at 0.6 and the friction Stokes number $St^+$ varying from 3 to 300. A full transition pathway is observed, from a drag-enhanced to a drag-reduced regime, eventually approaching the single-phase state as $St^+$ increases towards 300. A set of transport equations for the particle phase is derived analytically to characterise the interphase coupling, within the framework of the point-based statistical description of particle-laden turbulence. By virtue of this, two dominant mechanisms are identified and quantitatively characterised: a positive, particle-induced extra transport that decreases monotonically with increasing $St^+$ , and a negative, particle-induced extra dissipation that varies non-monotonically with $St^+$ . The coupling of these two mechanisms leads to a direct contribution of the particle phase to the shear stress balance, the turbulent kinetic energy budgets and the Reynolds stress budgets. Consequently, as $St^+$ increases, the self-sustaining cycle of near-wall turbulence transitions from being augmented to being suppressed and, eventually, returns to the single-phase state. This gives rise to an indirect effect, manifested as a non-monotonic modulation of Reynolds shear stress and turbulence production rate. Taken together, complex interplays between particle-modified turbulent transport, particle-induced extra transport and extra dissipation are analysed and summarised, providing a holistic physical picture composed of consistent interpretations of turbulence modulation induced by small heavy particles.