Beyond farmland: typology, patterns and sequences of mountainous agricultural landscapes along the urban–rural-nature gradient

Research on mountainous agricultural landscapes is crucial for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. However, existing studies often situate agricultural landscapes within broader land use categories, treating cropland as synonymous with agricultural landscapes. This perspective tends to overlook the complexity and diversity within agricultural landscapes themselves. Additionally, a structured framework tailored to the urban–rural-natural (U-R-N) gradients of mountainous regions is lacking. This study aims to develop a novel agricultural landscape classification framework and to analysis the typology, patterns and sequences of mountainous agricultural landscapes along the urban–rural-nature gradient. We transcend a singular land-use approach by developing a typology framework for mountainous agricultural landscapes, incorporating land use, cropping structure, topography, and governance type. Utilizing transects and landscape network methods, it analyzes agricultural landscape sequences along the U-R-N gradient. The study identifies 11 agricultural landscape types in the Panxi mountainous area, covering 27.93% of the region. Predominant types include Orchard, Orchard-Livestock Mixed Farming, Rainfed Grain Farming, Mid-Low Mountain Livestock Farming, and Alpine Cold Livestock Farming. Along the U-R-N gradient, agricultural landscapes transition gradually from intensive agriculture to mixed and semi-natural agriculture, with landscape diversity following a low–high-low pattern. This gradient also reflects a shift toward commercial, multifunctional, and ecological agriculture. Notably, the plain-mountain transition zone is critical for balancing agricultural production and ecological diversity, where types such as Orchard-Livestock Mixed Farming and Rainfed Grain Farming can enhance both biodiversity and crop productivity. The classification framework and landscape sequence methods proposed here provide effective pathways for recognizing and optimizing mountainous agricultural landscape patterns, identifying key areas and landscape types, and constructing sustainable agricultural landscape patterns for mountainous regions.