Muslims’ Psychological Responses to Subtle Versus Blatant Expressions of Anti-Muslim Prejudice

Subtle (vs. blatant) expressions of prejudice (EoPs) have been proposed to be detrimental and distressing partly because they are more ambiguous and socially accepted. Ambiguity might increase targets’ rumination and barriers of confronting EoPs. To test these assumptions, we developed a novel stimulus set (n = 130) based on a large literature base, including subtle and blatant EoPs. Muslim participants in Germany (N = 417) perceived subtle (vs. blatant) expressions of prejudice as more ambiguous, less discriminatory, and less distressing – with discrimination and distress ratings still above the scale midpoint. They reported to encounter subtle EoPs slightly more frequently and confronting them less. Contrary to common assumptions, participants expected to ruminate less about the discriminatory nature of subtle (vs. blatant) EoPs. We discuss conceptual and methodological reasons for these mixed findings. Further, we explored potential moderator effects, with a specific focus on gender. Together, these results suggest that even subtle EoPs impact well-being, while also highlighting the continued need for psychological research to address the consequences of blatant expressions of anti-Muslim prejudice.