Barriers To Last-Mile Connectivity To Metro Stations: A Comprehensive Literature Review

Last-mile connectivity (LMC) plays a crucial role in ensuring the efficiency and success of urban transportation systems, particularly in connecting commuters to metro stations. However, several barriers—technological, infrastructural, social, environmental, logistical, and operational—impede the seamless integration of last-mile solutions. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of these barriers and their impact on LMC at metro stations. Technological challenges include limitations in artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous vehicles, and intelligent transportation systems (ITS). Infrastructural and urban design barriers encompass inadequate pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, poor multimodal integration, and ineffective transit-oriented development (TOD). Social and behavioural factors such as gender-based safety concerns, commuter satisfaction, social equity, and cultural attitudes also hinder LMC efforts. Environmental and policy challenges arise from insufficient regulatory support for sustainable solutions, limited charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (EVs), and fragmented governance. Additionally, logistics and operational barriers—such as urban congestion, last-mile delivery inefficiencies, and poor coordination between public and private sectors—exacerbate the challenges in creating effective LMC systems. This review highlights the need for holistic, coordinated efforts to overcome these barriers, promoting more sustainable, efficient, and accessible transportation networks for urban residents.