Rising Attachment to the European Union (2006–2023). The Impact of Input and Output Legitimacy

Abstract It is commonly assumed—and feared—that European institution building proceeds faster than European identity development can follow. This would leave political institutions devoid of a demos that feels attached to the European Union (EU), making democratic governance impossible. Yet some posit that identification with the EU might emerge over time. Using Eurobarometer data from 2006 to 2023, we document a strong increase of EU attachment since 2013. This increasing EU attachment is primarily attributable to the EU being seen as more democratically responsive, suggesting an improved perception of the EU’s input legitimacy. Secondary factors are an improved macroeconomic situation and an increasing association of the EU with positive outcomes, suggesting an improved output legitimacy of the EU as well.