The cosmological constant problem: from Newtonian cosmology to the greatest puzzle of modern theoretical cosmology

The cosmological constant problem is one of the greatest challenges in contemporary physics, since it is deeply rooted in the problematic interplay between quantum fields and gravity. The aim of this work is to review the key conceptual elements needed to formulate the problem and some ideas for a possible solution. I do so by weaving a <i>fil rouge</i> from Newtonian cosmology, through general relativity and the standard model of relativistic cosmology ([Formula: see text]-CDM), up to the theory of quantum fields. In the first part, the issues with the application of Newtonian gravity to an infinite and static Universe are addressed, observing how a cosmological term in the Poisson equation would stabilize a homogeneous matter distribution. A toy derivation of the Friedman equations using only Newtonian arguments is also shown. In the second part, the conceptual path leading to general relativity and the <i>[Formula: see text]</i>-CDM model is laid down, with particular emphasis to the historical introduction of the cosmological constant and its new role after the discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe. Finally, the problem is formulated within the framework of quantum field theory. Its many facets are discussed together with the criticalities in the formulation and some of the leading ideas for its solution are outlined.This article is part of the theme issue 'Newton, <i>Principia</i>, Newton Geneva Edition (17th-19th) and modern Newtonian mechanics: heritage, past & present'.