Synthesis methods and characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles: A biomedical perspective

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have emerged as pivotal materials in nanomedicine due to their unique magnetic, catalytic, and biological properties. This review examines a variety of synthesis methods: chemical (co-precipitation, sol-gel, thermal decomposition, microemulsion), physical (ball milling, laser ablation, arc discharge, physical vapor deposition, spray pyrolysis), and biological (plant-mediated, microbial, and biomolecule-assisted) and discusses how these techniques influence nanoparticle size, crystallinity, and surface functionality. We also detail characterization techniques, such as SEM, TEM, XRD, DLS, and FTIR, that are critical for optimizing IONP performance in biomedical settings. Despite considerable progress, issues with reproducibility, scale-up, and biocompatibility remain. Future efforts should focus on standardizing protocols, integrating real-time monitoring, and conducting extensive safety assessments to facilitate the clinical translation and large-scale production of IONPs for diverse applications.