Influence of flowering plants in maize crop on the interaction network of <i>Tetragonula laeviceps</i> colonies

Abstract Land-use changes have increasingly threatened bee populations by reducing the availability of floral resources and nesting sites. Habitat loss and fragmentation have been identified as major drivers of bee decline, affecting their foraging behavior and pollination services. This study investigated the foraging behavior, and pollen preferences of Tetragonula laeviceps were assessed across four different locations, comparing treatment plots featuring nine species of flowering plants with control plots that lacked floral diversity and contained only maize ( Zea mays ). A total of 48 pollen species were identified, with 14 species common across all sites, indicating ecological overlap. In total, 50% of the identified pollen species were found both on bee bodies and in the hive, with 20.8% exclusive to bee bodies and 29.2% only in the hive. Bees in treatment plots exhibited more selective foraging, focusing on a limited range of plant species, while control plots showed more generalized foraging behavior. Dominant pollen sources included Carica papaya , Mikania micrantha , and Cyperus rotundus . Statistical analysis (GLM and ANOVA) revealed significantly fewer pollen species ( p &lt; 0.001) and lower pollen abundance ( p &lt; 0.001) in treatment plots compared to control plots. ANOSIM analysis showed significant differences in pollen composition between the control and treatment plots at most sites ( p &lt; 0.05). The bipartite interaction network revealed that control plots supported greater plant diversity (41 species vs 19) and more generalized foraging, while treatment plots had fewer plant species and exhibited more specialized foraging. These findings highlight the adaptability of T. laeviceps , with more selective foraging in low-diversity environments and generalized behavior in high-diversity areas.