Optimal multimodal analgesia combinations to reduce pain and opioid use following non-cardiac surgery: an instrumental variable analysis

Our findings further support existing evidence on the effectiveness of MMA in reducing postoperative pain and opioid use following non-cardiac surgery. Importantly, our study highlights that dexamethasone and NSAIDs, not acetaminophen, which is almost universally used in MMA regimens, resulted in the greatest reduction of postoperative pain and postoperative opioid use. This has significant implications for the continued use of NSAIDs and dexamethasone in MMA protocols and underscores the need for future studies exploring the independent effect of intravenous acetaminophen on postoperative pain.