The Persistent Threat of Cadmium: From Environmental Exposure to Multi-Organ Toxicity and Carcinogenesis

Cadmium (Cd) is a persistent, non-essential heavy metal with widespread environmental and occupational exposure risks. It bioaccumulates in vital organs—particularly the kidneys, liver, lungs, and bones—due to its long biological half-life and limited excretion. Cadmium exerts toxicity through mechanisms including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, calcium signaling disruption, and epigenetic alterations, contributing to apoptosis, autophagy dysregulation, and carcinogenesis. Organ-specific outcomes range from renal tubular damage and pulmonary fibrosis to bone demineralization and reproductive dysfunction. Recognized as a Group 1 carcinogen, cadmium also interacts synergistically with other toxicants, amplifying its health impact. This review highlights current biomarkers for cadmium exposure and evaluates therapeutic strategies such as chelation, antioxidants, zinc supplementation, and phytochemicals. Despite emerging interventions, prevention through environmental regulation and exposure mitigation remains the most effective approach to reducing cadmium-related disease burden.