Introducing the FoRe-Squares Model: Focus Support and Reward as Key Predictors of Effective Technology-Augmented Instruction

Abstract Given the many opportunities for technology use in education nowadays (e.g., Large language models, explainer videos, digital quizzing), teachers should know and rely on evidence-based answers to questions about when, how, and why technology-augmented instruction helps or hinders learning. To date, finding these answers requires integrating theories and concepts from multiple research fields (e.g., multimedia learning, intelligent tutoring systems, gamification) and perspectives on learning (cognition, motivation), which makes evidence-based answers less likely to be found in practice. To address this problem, we drafted a simple model (i.e., FoRe-Squares model) that synthesizes evidence-based concepts from various research fields and both cognitive and motivational theory. The FoRe -Squares model predicts that technology-augmented instruction is effective only when it provides both Fo cus support (cognitive factor) and Re ward (motivational factor) to enable and motivate active goal-directed processing. Technology-augmented instruction is thus more effective when it does not just apply cognitive techniques (e.g., signaling, contiguity) to increase focus support, but also motivational techniques (e.g., choice, gamification) to increase reward. Furthermore, cognitive-motivational techniques (e.g., elaborative feedback, intrinsic integration) are most likely effective for learning because they increase both focus support and reward at the same time; they should be prioritized when only a few techniques can be applied. Since just the two factors of focus support and reward predict learning outcomes across a broad range of situations, the FoRe-Squares model aims to provide a simple but evidence-based guide to technology-augmented instruction that should help instructional practice and inspire further research including instruction without technology.