The invisible force? How parliamentarians shape Japan–central Asia relations

Abstract Although parliamentarians play an important role in advancing interstate relations, their influence on foreign policy formulation, particularly amid growing geopolitical complexity and polarization, is often poorly understood. In the context of Japan–central Asia relations, inter-parliamentary cooperation is rarely explored in depth, and the role that members of the Japanese legislature play in shaping Japan's foreign policy towards central Asia remains insufficiently explored. This research aims to fill this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of Japan's parliamentary diplomacy towards central Asia, with specific attention being paid to the role of parliamentary leagues of friendship. Using in-depth interviews and document analysis in multiple languages, the study examines the influence of individual political figures and parliamentary structures (including both formal and informal associations) on the evolution of Japan–central Asia relations in general, and Japan–Kazakhstan relations in particular. The article demonstrates that parliamentary diplomacy, both formal and informal, has been central to fostering stronger relations between the nations, especially in the context of changing global dynamics.