Mechanisms of Localization: Policy, Adaptation, and Hybridity in Kalmyk Buddhism During Tsarist Period

This paper investigates the mechanisms underlying the localization of Buddhism among the Kalmyks during Tsarist rule.It identifies and analyzes three interconnected processes: (1) the evolving framework of Tsarist policies aimed at administrative integration and religious regulation; (2) Kalmyk adaptive strategies, particularly the development of unique institutional responses (Supreme Lama election, Chief Bagshi, Dayanqi, and Temple Adherent systems) to navigate state constraints; and (3) spontaneous processes of cultural hybridity are manifested in material culture (e.g., the Khoshut temple) and religious narratives (e.g., Ulyanov's reinvention of prophecies in Prophecies of Buddha).Utilizing the concept of "conjuncture practice" to frame these interactions, the study demonstrates how localization operated through a combination of regulatory pressure, community-level adaptation, and cultural synthesis, ultimately forging a distinct Kalmyk Buddhist expression within the imperial context.