The Nevada-Semipalatinsk Movement

In February 1989, the Kazakh writer Olzhas Suleimenov sparked an anti-nuclear movement when he turned a televised election campaign event into a call for opposition to Soviet nuclear testing near the city of Semipalatinsk (Semei in the Kazakh language). Some 2,000 people or more showed up to join his fledgling movement, which soon took on a transnational dimension, as Kazakh activists forged a link with U.S. Native American “downwinders” living near the Nevada nuclear test site and later Pacific Islanders affected by French nuclear testing at Moruroa Atoll. Even in the context of the reformist era launched by Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika, such transnational contacts between peoples on the periphery of their respective Cold War adversaries were remarkable, especially because the contacts had a big impact. The Nevada-Semipalatinsk movement (hereinafter, the “Nevada movement”) claimed credit for ending the Soviet nuclear testing program and setting the stage for the denuclearization of Kazakhstan when it achieved its independence after the disintegration of the USSR at the end of 1991. An even stronger claim would be that the transnational antinuclear movement helped end nuclear testing by the major nuclear-weapons states as of the early 1990s—a goal that government-to-government negotiations had failed to achieve.The Nevada movement represents an extraordinary phenomenon for the Soviet Union, even during a period when efforts were afoot to reform the overly centralized political system. The movement was, according to one description, “a model of trans-indigenous antinuclear solidarity . . . inspired in part by Western Shoshone attempts to reclaim their ancestral homeland from the United States and end nuclear weapons testing on Newe Sogobia, the Western Shoshone name for their land.” George Gregory Rozsa's detailed research into the relationship between the Kazakhs and Native American activists has led him to pose the counterfactual question, “Would Suleimenov and the Kazakhs have risen up in 1989 if U.S. grassroots antinuclear activists and the Western Shoshone had not paved the way?” He implies a negative answer when he then claims that “Western Shoshone activism at the Nevada Test Site provided proof and inspiration that Indigenous people could fight back against their nuclear colonial oppressors” and that transnational collaboration with Kazakh counterparts “had a material effect on the direction of Nevada-Semipalatinsk's operational tactics.” Rozsa criticizes accounts that give pride of place to governments and even nongovernmental elite-level efforts to end the Cold War and the nuclear arms race for having “overlooked or chosen to ignore Nevada-Semipalatinsk's transnational and Indigenous dimensions.”1This article examines the Nevada movement in its relationships with three different types of actors as it sought an end to nuclear testing: 1) U.S. antinuclear organizations, including Native American tribal activists, other grassroots protesters, and professional organizations opposed to nuclear weapons; 2) Soviet central authorities—the Communist Party and Soviet government—and regional officials in Kazakhstan; and 3) various representatives of the U.S. government. From a theoretical standpoint, the article revisits generalizations about the impact of contrasting “domestic structures” in the Soviet Union and the United States on their respective antinuclear movements. I consider to what extent generalizations and Gorbachev's the of between the Nevada movement and The that Gorbachev's provided an for transnational activism what the more U.S. The antinuclear activists of Kazakhstan Gorbachev's of a their U.S. counterparts up against a to nuclear and and more the to nuclear testing in In to the elite-level on transnational activism that Rozsa criticizes and his on Native American article to Kazakh antinuclear efforts that the article with an of Kazakh antinuclear to the of the Soviet nuclear test site at and then the of three of activists the Nevada The article then the of of the movement in February The the theoretical on and its for in the for antinuclear and for transnational during a of The the contacts between the Nevada movement and U.S. and a more of and contrasting U.S. and Soviet the by the activists to The the relationship of the Nevada movement with Soviet central and regional and with U.S. I with him on a to to and with Kazakh he and his Nevada activists to the U.S. to with an on Soviet The article with a of the of the Nevada movement and its U.S. to a end to nuclear testing an their in the Semipalatinsk test and Kazakhstan a to the Nevada movement in Kazakhstan when it more the the in the USSR after the Soviet and and it a for Soviet and as states such as Nevada and have for the United a of the USSR of of the Soviet the Semipalatinsk nuclear test or on of in from the city that the site its The test of a Soviet nuclear took place on Some were the of in the and from such as and of and of and the of to the nuclear The and that at people have by to nuclear from the test site and more people affected three of to the and from nuclear testing at Semipalatinsk the to the of a antinuclear The by in the for an of in Gorbachev's helped the He a nuclear test as a for nuclear and he to of from a more Soviet he on the or in the of nuclear his such as to of Soviet and his attempts at and to in he that the of the Soviet to be Gorbachev's in and his him to give up the Soviet political on antinuclear of even the of and by the and of that inspired Kazakh of nuclear three a period of three in during the of about the of nuclear during a period of of after the of and an anti-nuclear of in Semipalatinsk in the that the and the transnational of antinuclear activism the of the Nevada movement and the contacts with the Western Shoshone representatives or other U.S. has to the of a and in Semipalatinsk in the of his to the In in a Soviet led by of to the against and in to the of and the of nuclear of the on to and nuclear were with Soviet and by the by to Soviet nuclear testing and for a test the for the with the article the of the The other in and of in to in from the the Soviet including as the Kazakhs to the as his in he from the to about the of the people in Kazakhstan from the of nuclear at The Kazakh writer for that in at the in of he with in his what his from a Kazakh writer and Soviet a at a in Semipalatinsk in 1989, and a Kazakh in in at the with the Soviet that the of the for a Test in Kazakhstan in in and Kazakh with other Kazakh and to in his of a of him at the and a that the effect his had on the by his to antinuclear in by from with in the U.S. even three U.S. in their with the of the nuclear of by the of nuclear and an by a of to to the nuclear test site at Nevada to the testing From the at the antinuclear a the and a of to the had as the of the in Nevada had led to a in the U.S. nuclear testing to be on on of the of represents the of the antinuclear movement of the of the Nevada in from the of in one of in for and one for had a major in the of the Kazakh his to in his on to in at the of in and the Kazakh in In the movement and its in that would have in the as and an at . . . were up by a of and even in and not a in Kazakh he in his his goal in to Kazakh in the of political of the movement were at the of in later such as the Nevada-Semipalatinsk the The to Kazakh a place in the movement, for by an with the of Kazakhstan in the of the he the to the Kazakh that Kazakh especially as in the antinuclear movement, not at the of the other in including The of that antinuclear by not of to to a to the in Kazakhstan in the and and a the after his and to his and He his antinuclear after had forged transnational with antinuclear activists in Suleimenov or other Kazakhs had representatives of the Western context for antinuclear activism took place during the early of Gorbachev's on and and at The Soviet Union had a of its nuclear on to at the of the if the United States to In the of U.S. and from the Soviet and from the Soviet that the about to it In to and to the of the Soviet to the to testing: the end of the period of on the of test by the Soviet nuclear not have to be He the Soviet of an movement for the of nuclear on with its in up his with with a in central and even in when he for according to of nuclear test to the Semipalatinsk as have the in the on provided by claims that the Semipalatinsk regional to his solidarity with the for the to nuclear with Semipalatinsk were and and from which and people in in the officials to in the of U.S. the Soviet Union testing in with an on that if to antinuclear in the of the Soviet the of a Semipalatinsk with as its on a after the USSR its with the test at Semipalatinsk and the Nevada antinuclear movement on the to a as of the Soviet with in and to nuclear the of to the affected and to Semipalatinsk political for the Soviet to when his for the USSR to an to the then of the Semipalatinsk he to his that he the of the had sought a in the of which would then of the of in the were to organizations such as the Communist the the central and the of February 1989, central from his as of the Semipalatinsk were an that could have his from three three of political activism in of which the of the Nevada The to the of the and of Soviet Kazakh writer to his nuclear testing at as to the people of that the Soviet at the a on nuclear and Soviet to the of in the such as that had an end to the as early as with the Soviet nuclear program had in a of the of nuclear including from the and that the of weapons on a to the of the . . . In a the of be to which the of the be . . . that an of the end of on the of such the Soviet a nuclear test from a on Soviet to to about the that Soviet nuclear on Kazakhstan and its people not at with about the of nuclear at of the political system. the that about nuclear weapons to the of the Semipalatinsk the of in a have his antinuclear activism took place in the context of Gorbachev's reformist at and of Gorbachev's early to a to nuclear testing as a to nuclear and he of antinuclear activism was, with he the of by especially the had the end of the he by a in the USSR of Gorbachev's as a that if of the political of a more because his not as with Soviet efforts to Kazakh and for have to the Communist of the to of or he to for the of the Nevada movement, which to Kazakh other that its antinuclear Suleimenov a to Kazakh with a in his antinuclear activism from his as a of the Soviet and political in in he a in at the to to the He for a as a for and a of the Communist he in his his in a near for The to research of the the of the a of to and Suleimenov of and He would have were it not for the of the of Communist Party and of the Soviet Communist on with Soviet the with a In Suleimenov of the Kazakhstan Union and a later a of the USSR to In 1989, he to for a in the of Suleimenov be as a in of the Soviet the of nuclear he to at with representatives of the Soviet In his about nuclear testing by the of the Nevada In when the Test from the and he a with the the end of He to that the from that on material into the a Soviet in the he from of and to in early 1989 when he that on and February had that by to the of at the for a televised event to his for the USSR of on he to the to the nuclear and a for later at the Union, which he had for a of people showed Suleimenov turned the event into the of the Nevada The could and the him against on the as the Suleimenov the in in the and in the to a by of the of the Kazakhstan Communist in the in a by movement he his the that counterparts in the American of Nevada the test site their in He to a the at the Nevada Test by to the of in the of Suleimenov by organizations and the peoples of and and the peoples of the governments of the the states in the to at the and an on the of in a Suleimenov a on of the of his movement the U.S. antinuclear activists in that as their in the and in the had to that the movement be as the had turned into a nuclear test the name the Suleimenov for that He had against the nuclear because that implies of one living in of affected by the Suleimenov the Nevada movement, by its to a to U.S. antinuclear transnational between between the central and regional in the Soviet Union and the United States at the In the of a test or a to a nuclear test The in political on has on the of “domestic to for a of from to as the of the to the of and the impact of of the United States and the Soviet Union, a back to a by and in which that the United for to up the Soviet Union, in to have a from the a at the the of to of the for the and of the the the arms race and and that with of The Nevada movement in at a when the Soviet a that a of of its between Soviet and U.S. the of and The United States to have that could a and the USSR a that even and in the United States from the in the weapons and the the as of or would In the the Communist would in a centralized and even such as the and would be to the to the of transnational activists, such as the Nevada movement, a in the United of arms and or in with the arms and of it to the U.S. In the Soviet Union, by if and political the of the their could be the Soviet and to for of the Cold the as part of Gorbachev's in the that with the of central the and the of the were to to Soviet the Communist Party its and the of transnational activism a on a it with the actors that in the of nuclear a or a with other the theoretical three up to more about the Nevada movement and its transnational of the Nevada movement the period of Soviet as the Communist Party sought to its and even as actors to a in an early of the movement a that the of the and the of of the War War had as a in the he in Kazakh about the in his to that he to nuclear he it had to about the a and would have that it to he to the to Mikhail from Gorbachev's and even his for a movement the of the Soviet political system. a of the USSR as have Suleimenov an campaign on to the at the of the Union, which he the he the of the Nevada movement, for for its and then a of for the name from the Suleimenov The of the Nevada movement then a of in of transnational would the were at to the USSR to the Semipalatinsk site and to of the at the and on a the of the Nevada movement of the Soviet it of the people could and then the to their with nuclear and their including by for the movement In the after the activists the by and in of the The Nevada movement a Soviet in to U.S. activists of the and the In the transnational contacts between Soviet and U.S. activists, and by Rozsa to the of a U.S. and with American an of the movement to nuclear testing at the Nevada to Rozsa in when Suleimenov launched his movement at the end of February with a call for transnational He Rozsa that he to Kazakhstan the and his of against nuclear In then of the Nevada movement, a to the United he activists against U.S. nuclear in Nevada and to in Rozsa major by the Nevada movement in Kazakhstan an American of the Semipalatinsk Test Site near the of not The Nevada of the during period the not to as the with U.S. that the of his to The a in the test on 1989, the of the nuclear of it not or In the with a in the city of Semipalatinsk and of solidarity in as the Nevada activists had antinuclear in other of Kazakhstan were to with the Nevada Suleimenov with activists from American Test on a that would the for the transnational as the Nevada movement on the of U.S. and Native American activists, it of its The of or including to the early of the antinuclear movements. The Kazakh activists their on the by the that from to to Suleimenov had were the that in in Semipalatinsk and on to and and then to The Kazakh it a the that to the grassroots Suleimenov more at the of for with the movement of Rozsa in 1989, the U.S. to with Western antinuclear that had to up for an of antinuclear would on of a Test in their The the in with a to the city of Semipalatinsk and the of In Rozsa's of for the for the of War and the of American give the a and Western grassroots organizations more with the Nevada movement, organizations that provided the of the and In a with the Nevada-Semipalatinsk movement, one of that elite-level organizations, such as the for and grassroots such as Nevada and for the or as The up of of of the and it with grassroots activists, including the of the Western Shoshone and of the at the an from the Shoshone had helped the campaign against nuclear testing and in a of the United States with Kazakh in February an from after from in the that the movement the on the Soviet its as the and the political the between U.S. and Soviet political his U.S. and in his for with Soviet of were in against Soviet had a nuclear test into it that Suleimenov would to with the it took the to representatives of the and other antinuclear such as the in to to the the of the had and other Soviet counterparts to that a nuclear test in he to a Soviet that the U.S. would by for U.S. nuclear testing as it turned In he his in an to an in in in a after of the Soviet Communist at a in his by a as the that had to a Soviet have with the transnational antinuclear collaboration with the USSR the Nevada In to the of a and an of had in Kazakhstan to the Soviet nuclear for which Soviet in collaboration with the a in the of up part of a by an for to such on to a Test at three in Kazakhstan in not that a Soviet turned to an such as which to his and to and as The an of the activism and the and and were provided in different and of Kazakh and were to with the even to be on could Nevada activists the United States from Kazakhstan what a contrasting political for The U.S. of the movement, in to the of that the Soviet to The of U.S. on to the Kazakh and Rozsa one when Nevada to of the for of the Kazakhstan of the and a of the Nevada to his to the The that the were to or that the grassroots activists were more the of the Kazakh of the United States on of the on collaboration against nuclear transnational activism when in In the of from back to and in In a in the movement, to a for a from for the of the and for of in in and the and to in transnational antinuclear for with Suleimenov and the Nevada In with Soviet and of U.S. activists, in a the United In 1989 in of at the Nevada Test that in the city of as a in the of with the Nevada movement in when for the for in its to a Test helped a in an from the to up of the and Kazakh at and the other major nuclear to The Soviet Union by Suleimenov and his a in at the Soviet of and a to their and then to a at the U.S. the Suleimenov of Kazakh activists had in for a after having U.S. in Kazakhstan the The on the U.S. an from name He in such and at that in a for the of the the Kazakh activists were at at a were for the with and and were by Kazakh into the and their the people in their on the it for the Kazakhs to the United of the that from the to be claimed it to one at a as the Kazakh had he that be of people He to the Suleimenov had the and his had to be he had his a of a to to the Kazakh and have a to He as a at and in a when Kazakh and professional people at a and three that up people at a He had to he took to the and in the an the between the Soviet and U.S. to transnational In the Soviet and Kazakh organizations to their transnational on a to a goal that an end to nuclear In the United the of the Kazakh were a nongovernmental the and a U.S. such as of with his opposition to a test The Kazakh in a more the by to and the of the activists, of at the end of their had the that in had on and a of represents the of U.S. and Soviet as transnational between their respective of the to a in the grassroots antinuclear collaboration with Soviet of nuclear In for and a by Suleimenov and his activists to a test for with activists the and of the the end of the of the Kazakh to to be for an on the the Kazakh to in to the antinuclear movement to the Soviet in by an and an of the Nevada In with having the that the between the Western Shoshone and the Kazakh In as a of the Kazakh to the of the Semipalatinsk Test a with representatives of a major to a of to In a stage with Kazakh and to the at a televised to for a the of a grassroots collaboration with Kazakh antinuclear activists and by the Nevada relationship to the Soviet and Kazakhstan the of the the Nevada movement from the transnational with U.S. activists that inspired its other of its from the of the Soviet political and the in the the would it that a movement could have the Semipalatinsk Test Site in the of a Soviet to it the by the that the of nuclear He Suleimenov and the Kazakh antinuclear activists in his of a In 1989, after the of the Nevada-Semipalatinsk movement, to for with He Suleimenov in the and to him in his as one of him and his to In a with in in had in an with nuclear The Soviet for their as a to as of the antinuclear movement in his the for his to with on the Suleimenov that in an to even that He an antinuclear helped him and he helped and his it a to a nuclear to join the that Suleimenov in about nuclear weapons in that the Nevada movement and its goal to the Semipalatinsk Test Site the relationship between Kazakhstan and the central in Suleimenov from the Kazakh political to the Soviet nuclear test He after the February 1989 that he and three regional political to to of the Semipalatinsk regional to the test the end of the Kazakh political had to the in part by the with the centralized Soviet and of regional the Soviet of Kazakhstan a of and at the end of it a nuclear at the Semipalatinsk site and from the USSR of for the by The Kazakh a the test site on the of the Soviet test at the of the Nevada movement, Soviet had to of opposition to their at the especially in of the the had the The had to with nuclear In to the of the Kazakh Communist not with Kazakh or even a of the with a Gorbachev's goal to at of the he as if were Kazakh of Gorbachev's sparked three of and to the of the Kazakhstan Communist by the of the in the in with in other The as after the Kazakh for an on the with and people for with the of in that not the officials by their in have a in the the had to to Kazakh in the of the of antinuclear that to in 1989, a after the of the Nevada movement, and that Soviet officials with its on the of Suleimenov The Soviet could not to the of Kazakh opposition to Soviet nuclear and political in the and of 1989, when in the their the of nuclear and to if the to the test the Soviet a test on 1989, Kazakh to by up in and and for a Test the event for which Suleimenov sought U.S. on his to the United States in 1989, took place on The event represents the of Soviet at the as for the of a of including from of Gorbachev's could of the that would Gorbachev's to the in the of and led to the of Soviet in with of an In the of the Gorbachev's and the of the Communist Suleimenov had as early as 1989 in a in that Gorbachev's would the He a with the the more the to the and at the of in the centralized Soviet with Soviet according to the and were of between the central and the Kazakh and the by of the Soviet that in the had from the The a of from and to as the to for on to a test of a test and of nuclear and and of nuclear-weapons and of the of the on the Nevada In his he on the of he had with to about as if transnational were The by in the the on of the at the on Even it Kazakhs the and what on their or in their about the effect of the and of Kazakh and a for for his with to the test The and the in the of era of with Soviet a Soviet with opposed the of a Soviet test in the of U.S. representatives of the Soviet that their in of the of the that had to the Nevada Kazakh an to the of the Soviet from a Kazakh Soviet had for to the of a the of a of and a Kazakh a of of in he have about The the that were the War and had to have could up their to fight The to his into even the against the of nuclear fight to nuclear the that the Nevada activists against the Soviet the of the nuclear testing and other of with the Soviet In the of activists three of at the of and near the Semipalatinsk Test of the Semipalatinsk of the movement the and other from the USSR to join a U.S. with in a with of the test the He that the movement the test program by by people in the to in the were to up into of about a to have with Kazakh in up on the site for the one Kazakh and a and a of the that in the Nevada movement the of had of had of a and with an for to the in the with that it would not be to on a of the to his and the their contacts later to such as the of to Kazakhstan that helped as as from Nevada activists to had the Nevada relationship with Soviet the Some officials were in the of the Soviet it the that nuclear testing could not be U.S. such as or were