Developing Effective VR Training Simulations for Additive Manufacturing: A Modular Usability-Driven Design Approach

Hands-on training for additive manufacturing (AM) often faces hurdles like high costs, safety concerns, and limited accessibility. Virtual Reality (VR)-based simulated environments present viable solutions by offering immersive, resource-efficient, and flexible learning environments. This paper introduces a modular, usability-driven design framework for developing effective VR training simulations for Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) processes in AM. Aimed at educators and developers, the framework features distinct modules covering VR familiarization, foundational PBF concepts and safety protocols, guided operational steps, and unguided practice. Key design principles include smooth teleportation for navigation minimizing simulation sickness, clear visual and auditory guiding cues, and accessibility considerations. The framework was evaluated with 12 students using the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Results showed no participant withdrawal due to simulation sickness. System usability was rated favorably on a five-point scale, with most SUS scores between 68 and 78, indicating good to excellent usability. Participants reported confidence (3.25 ±0.45) while using this VR training platform and they required minimal technical support (0.67 ±0.65). This framework provides practical guidance for creating engaging, safe, and effective VR training for additive manufacturing.