Visual gaze and engagement with non-driving related tasks: a driving simulator study with automated driving systems

Findings reveal that regardless of the NDRT, drivers continued engaging in NDRTs right up till the TOR. Designing intuitive, context-specific interfaces that guide drivers' attention to driving-related areas and provide information can improve drivers' awareness of the TOR and, consequently, their takeover performance. The findings provide significant insights on the potential methods to keep drivers aware of their surroundings while using automation, and while transitioning to manual control. These insights provide information on driving behaviors with Level 3 automation, specifically how fully licensed drivers engage with distraction while driving with Level 3.