Integrating knowledge of results with observed motor information enhances sensitive motor adjustment: exploring observational motor learning by the concept of schema

Abstract Traditionally, individual and observational motor learning theories have been developed in isolation. Whereas the former has extensively explored the manipulation of feedback, the latter often minimizes the role of feedback, emphasizing the function of mirror neurons. Recent research has demonstrated that feedback from observing sensitive motor control by others can enhance motor performance, as exemplified by activities such as adjusting jumping heights. This study aimed to elucidate the similarities between these two learning theories by investigating the roles of knowledge of results (KR) and motor information obtained through observation, incorporating a subjective–objective error framework. When only KR was provided, positive feedback resulted in a deviation from optimal learning. In contrast, when both KR and motor information, which are part of the process of achieving an outcome, are made available, they function as negative feedback, thereby facilitating learning. These findings align with the individual motor learning theory, which is conceptualized using a schema framework. The results offer valuable insights into the integration of individual and observational motor learning theories, suggesting that educators and coaches should prioritize providing information on the mechanisms underlying the achievement of results rather than focusing solely on formal knowledge in the context of teaching motor skills.