Pathways linking health literacy to diabetes risk scores in a non-diabetic population in Ismailia, Egypt: a cross sectional study design

HL reduces DR primarily through its effect on PHB. While DK and SE contribute, their effects are less pronounced. Interventions that enhance HL and support healthy behaviors may help prevent T2DM in at-risk populations. Future research should use longitudinal designs, diabetes-specific HL tools, objective risk measures; explore psychosocial mediators; and study diverse populations.