Human, or nature-led? A spectrum of nature-based solutions

In the face of a global climate and biodiversity crisis, alongside intensifying natural hazards, there is growing interest in solutions that work with nature rather than against it—often referred to as Nature-based Solutions (NbS). NbS encompass a spectrum of approaches addressing diverse challenges. Based on our research in water resources, landscape management, and climate mitigation, in this perspective piece we identify two forms of NbS: (1) human-led interventions (H-NbS) that are actively designed and maintained, and (2) nature-led solutions (N-NbS) that allow natural processes to function with minimal human intervention. Drawing on our experience working with practitioners and policymakers, we highlight four key factors influencing the uptake and implementation of H-NbS and N-NbS: (1) the need for certainty, (2) balancing co-benefits and risks, (3) governance structures, and (4) societal perceptions of NbS. We propose that viewing NbS on a spectrum—from human-led to nature-led—offers a valuable framework for integrating these approaches alongside engineered solutions in policy and management. Recognising and leveraging the strengths of nature-led solutions can enhance sustainable, multi-benefit resilience in the face of environmental challenges.