Rate dependence of high strength steels mechanical behavior: Characterization, modelling and impact applications

• Strain rate effects on the behaviors of high-strength steels are highlighted • Performance of rate-dependent material models are compared under dynamic conditions • Material layering for enhanced ballistic resistance is explored • The significance of projectile-plate interaction is emphasized • CPFEM for capturing microscale rate-dependent phenomena are reviewed Strain rate dependence is a critical factor in understanding the mechanical behavior of materials, particularly high-strength steels, which are widely used in safety-critical applications due to their superior strength, toughness and energy absorption under dynamic loading conditions. These properties make them ideal candidates for use in scenarios such as ballistic impacts, where materials are subjected to extreme deformation rates. Despite extensive research on individual material systems, or models, a comprehensive review that integrates experimental observations, material characterization techniques and constitutive modeling across different strain rates regimes remain lacking. This review addresses that gap by evaluating strain rate-dependent behavior in high-strength steels, while also highlighting how many of the underlying mechanisms and modeling approaches are applicable to other steel categories and metallic alloys. In addition to reviewing key constitutive models, we discuss the experimental techniques used to characterize rate-dependent behavior, such as Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) testing and high-speed digital image correlation. The comparison reveals that while the Johnson-Cook model is widely used for its simplicity, the GISSMO model offers improved accuracy for capturing stress-state-sensitive damage evolution in high-strength steels. Furthermore, we emphasize the necessity of microscale analysis, particularly through the Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Method (CPFEM), which has shown strong potential for predicting deformation sequences and crack initiation in complex loading conditions. Overall, this review provides an organized overview of strain rate regimes, their associated macroscopic and microscopic behaviors, the experimental methods used to characterize them, and the modeling strategies suited for different steel systems.