Transboundary conservation of musk deer (Moschus spp.): global synthesis of populations, distributions, threats, and recovery strategies

Musk deer ( Moschus spp.) are critically endangered due to poaching and habitat fragmentation, underscoring the challenges of conserving high-value species within transboundary landscapes. Global status of Moschus species is synthesized, and an integrative framework that connects technological, cultural, and policy innovations is proposed in this study to enhance population restoration and resource sustainability. Mitochondrial gene data were extracted from the genetic database to investigate phylogenetic relationships, while distribution patterns were compiled from existing literatures and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and subsequently mapped using ArcMap. Population estimates were derived from historical and contemporary records, and a systematic analysis of threats and conservation perspectives was conducted. Seven musk deer species were identified across 14 countries, with China likely hosting all seven species, followed by India and Nepal (four species of each). The global population is estimated to be no more than 300,000 individuals, with approximately 75% of the total distributed in China and Russia. The Siberian musk deer is the most widespread and abundant, with an estimated population of around 200,000. The Kashmir musk deer and Anhui musk deer are among the rarest, each with approximately 500 individuals remaining. Persistent threats, including poaching and anthropogenic habitat pressures, were documented in this study. Proposed conservation strategies aim to mitigate these threats and facilitate population recovery. The distribution of musk deer varies across countries, with populations generally facing threats and decline, indicating substantial gaps in conservation efforts. Key recommendations include the establishment of a global conservation alliance, improved management of protected areas, coordination of multi-stakeholder initiatives, and prioritization of ex-situ conservation research. Our findings emphasize the urgency of cross-border collaboration and community-led interventions to reverse population declines, thereby providing scalable solutions for the conservation of threatened musk deer.