The study of two impressive simulacra at Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Almada, Portugal

Abstract Simulacra, or full-body reliquaries of corpi santi , have largely been overlooked in the discourse of the past century by the Church, the general public, and scholars. This work investigates two noteworthy cases among simulacra—two young individuals, St. Primogenita and St. Theodore—from Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Almada in Portugal. Based on a historical and analytical approach, the study examines the simulacra context, assembly methods, materials, symbols of martyrdom, and adornments. Their possible arrival in Portugal in the late eighteenth century is supported by the Bishop's seal and textile features that reflect the fashion of that period. Radiographic imaging and particularly borescope inspections revealed distinct assembly techniques, with St. Theodore displaying meticulous anatomical assembly, while St. Primogenita's construction is less precise. However, access to the cranium fragments of St. Primogenita revealed an elaborate consolidation method. SEM–EDS, FT-IR, and Py-GC–MS analyses identified a fibrous material coated with a dark brown paste, likely used to bond the unfused parts of the ectocranium fragments of a young individual, as well as a paste applied to reinforce the endocranium. Martyrdom symbols further distinguished the simulacra , with St. Primogenita adorned with a silk petal crown attached using animal glue, whereas St. Theodore's crown was crafted from pigment-dyed cellulosic materials. LC-DAD-MS analysis revealed the natural dyes used in coloured threads. Only St. Primogenita retained fragments from a phial of blood, where a creative method may have been employed to emphasise the blood content. This investigation highlighted the complexity and artistry behind these simulacra . Graphical abstract