“Old hosts die hard”: the return of the grey wolf (Canis lupus) and the re-emerging threat of cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis in northern Italy

Over the past decades, the grey wolf (Canis lupus) has expanded its range across Italy, reclaiming historical habitats, including anthropized landscapes. This resurgence raises concerns regarding its potential role in maintaining and spreading pathogens. In this study, we focused on Dirofilaria immitis, the causative agent of canine heartworm disease, investigating its prevalence in wolves and exploring the environmental factors influencing infection risk. A total of 488 wolf carcasses collected from northern and central Italy between 2021 and 2024 were analysed. Morphological identification of adult nematodes was conducted using light and scanning electron microscopy, while molecular analyses of mitochondrial COI and 12S rRNA genes were performed to assess genetic variation. Spatial modelling was applied to evaluate infection risk based on environmental factors. D. immitis was detected in 3.5% of the sampled wolves, with prevalence varying among regions, reaching 5.2% in Emilia-Romagna. Microfilariae were identified in two cases, confirming the wolves' potential role as competent hosts. Phylogenetic analysis revealed no significant genetic divergence between D. immitis from wolves and those previously recorded in dogs and other hosts. Spatial analysis indicated that infection risk was highest in low-altitude areas of the Po Valley, a historically endemic region for dirofilariosis. These findings suggest that the expanding wolf population may serve as a competent host for D. immitis, potentially influencing local epidemiology and complicating control efforts in domestic dogs. Continued surveillance is necessary to assess the impact of wildlife reservoirs on heartworm transmission and public health.