Complexity of combined abiotic stresses to crop plants

• Climate change leads to unpredictable abiotic stress combinations (heat and drought, flooding and salinity), severely affecting plant growth and productivity. • Combined stress factors drastically reduce photosynthetic efficiency, reproductive success, and yield, emphasizing the need for resilient crop varieties. • Speed breeding enables the rapid development of stress-resilient crop varieties by shortening the breeding cycle using controlled environments. • Gene-editing technologies like CRISPR/Cas9 target genes linked to stress tolerance pathways, facilitating the creation of climate-resilient crops. Plants frequently encounter combined abiotic stress factors such as heat and drought, salinity and drought, and flooding and salinity, which significantly impact their growth, development, and productivity. These stress combinations often produce distinct physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses, requiring complex mechanisms for tolerance. Taken together, we highlight the morphological adaptations (e.g., reduced leaf area, deeper roots) and biochemical responses (e.g., accumulation of osmoprotectants and antioxidants) that help plants mitigate stress effects. We emphasize the important role of phytohormones such as abscisic acid, salicylic acid, and ethylene in stress signaling and molecular regulation through transcription factors and epigenetic modifications during combined stresses. Integrating advanced tools like omics technologies (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics), genetic engineering (CRISPR/Cas9), speed breeding, and systems biology provides insights into stress-responsive pathways and accelerates the development of resilient crops. Additionally, nutrient management strategies (notably silicon and lesser essential nutrient supplementation), and agricultural practices like low tillage and cover cropping are also explored as strategies to enhance stress tolerance. One of the least studied in combined stresses is the utilization of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, either single or mixed communities. These are promising approaches for improving stress tolerance. This review underscores the need for multi-year field trials and interdisciplinary strategies to address the complexities of combined stresses and achieve sustainable crop productivity under changing climatic conditions. Future perspectives focus on designing climate-smart crops using speed breeding, synthetic biology, and machine learning. Created in BioRender. Khan, A. (2025) https://BioRender.com/t50h032