Crafting hybridity: institutionalizing and governing maritime militias’ public-private collaboration

The institutionalization of maritime militias through public-private collaboration signifies a strategic shift toward hybrid governance, blending state authority with private-sector capabilities. This study employs a comparative analysis to examine this process, contrasting the formalized and deeply integrated systems in China and Vietnam with the more fragmented and experimental institutional arrangements in the Philippines and the United States. The analysis reveals that hybrid governance presents three core dilemmas: ensuring the behavioral accountability of private actors, managing the dual-use conversion of civilian vessels, and adapting to rapid technological transformations. A central paradox is identified: while institutionalized collaboration enhances a state’s tactical control over maritime forces, it simultaneously exacerbates governance challenges at the international level. These findings underscore a critical tension between the strategic utility of hybrid governance and the stability of rule-of-law frameworks, making it imperative to reconcile the operational advantages of these public-private models with the principles of international order.